ENZYMES IN FOOD PROCESSING
CONTENTS FOOD ENZYMES: GENERAL PROPERTIES AND KINETICS PLANTS- AND ANIMAL-DERIVED ENZYMES AND THEIR POTENTIAL APPLICATION IN FOOD PROCESSING AND PRESERVATION ROLE OF ENZYMES IN FRUIT AND VEGETABLE PROCESSING INDUSTRIES: EFFECT ON QUALITY, PROCESSING METHOD, AND APPLICATION PRODUCTION OF ?, ?, AND ?-CYCLODEXTRIN GLUCONOTRANSFERASE (CGTASE) AND THEIR APPLICATIONS IN FOOD INDUSTRY ENZYME IN MILK AND MILK PRODUCTS: ROLE AND APPLICATION ENZYMES IN BREWING AND WINE INDUSTRIES ENZYMES IN MEAT, FISH, AND POULTRY PRODUCTS PROCESSING AND PRESERVATION-I ENZYMES IN MEAT, FISH, AND POULTRY PRODUCT PROCESSING AND PRESERVATION-II ENZYMES IN FUNCTIONAL FOOD DEVELOPMENT ENZYMES AS ACTIVE PACKAGING SYSTEM ENZYMES AS A TOOL IN FOOD ANALYSIS AND FOODBORNE PATHOGEN DETECTION ENZYMES IN FLAVOR DEVELOPMENT AND FOOD PRESERVATION ENZYMES FROM GENETICALLY MODI?ED ORGANISMS AND THEIR CURRENT APPLICATIONS IN FOOD DEVELOPMENT AND FOOD CHAIN CURRENT APPLICATIONS OF ENZYMES IN GM (GENETICALLY MODI?ED) FOOD DEVELOPMENT AND FOOD CHAIN ENZYME IMMOBILIZATION AND ITS APPLICATION STRATEGIES IN FOOD PRODUCTS PROSPECTS AND CHALLENGES IN FOOD-GRADE ENZYMES INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTION NANOTECHNOLOGY AND FOOD GRADE ENZYMES FOOD ENZYMES: GENERAL PROPERTIES AND KINETICS ABSTRACT ENZYMES ARE THE BIOCATALYSTS HAVING A CATALYTIC POWER THAT SPEEDS UP A CHEMICAL REACTION WITHOUT CHANGING THE EQUILIBRIUM OF THE REACTION ALMOST ALL ENZYMES ARE PROTEIN IN NATURE AND THE BIOCATALYTIC POWER LIES IN THE INTEGRITY OF THEIR STRUCTURAL CONFORMATION THE ENZYMES ARE HIGHLY SPECI?C WITH THEIR SUBSTRATE MOLECULES THAT CONVERT INTO THE PRODUCT BY DECREASING THE ACTIVATION ENERGY, WITHOUT GETTING CHANGED ITSELF HOWEVER, THE BIOCATALYTIC POWER OF THE ENZYMES ALSO DEPENDS ON SEVERAL PHYSICO-CHEMICAL PARAMETERS SUCH AS TEMPERATURE, PH, SALT CONCENTRATIONS, ETC OF THE REACTION THE ENZYME CATALYSIS CAN BE QUANTITATIVELY REVEALED BY THE ENZYME KINETICS MECHANISM WHICH MEASURES THE REACTION RATES AND THE AF?NITY OF ENZYMES TOWARDS THE SUBSTRATES AND INHIBITORS THE ENZYMES CAN BE ISOLATED FROM THE VARIOUS BIOLOGICAL FACTORIES SUCH AS PLANT, ANIMAL, OR MICROBIAL CELLS DEPENDING UPON THE TYPE OF ENZYME HOWEVER, IN ORDER TO PRODUCE AT LARGE SCALE, THE MICROBIAL SOURCES ARE THE BEST CHOICE WHICH CAN EFFECTIVELY REDUCE THE PRODUCTION AND PURI?CATION COST OF ENZYMES THE ENZYMES ARE WIDELY USED IN VARIOUS SECTORS SUCH AS AGRICULTURE, ENVIRONMENTAL, LEATHER TANNING, PAPER AND PULP, CHEMICAL AND PHARMACEUTICAL, DETERGENT, FOOD AND BEVERAGES, ETC IN THIS CHAPTER, WE ARE MAINLY FOCUSSING ON THE ROLE OF ENZYMES IN THE FOOD INDUSTRY INTRODUCTION AN ENZYME IS A BIOMOLECULE WHICH ACTS AS A BIOCATALYST THAT INCREASES THE RATE OF A CHEMICAL REACTION WITHOUT ALTERING THE EQUILIBRIUM OF THE REACTION THE ENZYME TRANSFORMS A SUBSTRATE INTO A PRODUCT, WITHOUT GETTING CHANGED ITSELF ENZYMES ARE PRODUCED BY THE LIVING CELLS THE TERM ‘ENZYME’ WAS ?RST NAMED BY KUHNE IN FOR THE CATALYTICALLY ACTIVE SUBSTANCES EARLIER CALLED FERMENTS HOWEVER, A GERMAN BIOCHEMIST EDUARD BUCHNER IN 1897 WAS THE ?RST TO DISCOVER THE ENZYME ZYMASE FROM THE YEAST WHICH IS INVOLVED IN THE FERMENTATION OF SUGAR INTO ALCOHOL IN 1907, HE WAS AWARDED THE NOBEL PRIZE FOR THE BIOCHEMICAL INVESTIGATIONS OF NON-CELLULAR ALCOHOLIC FERMENTATION (KOHLER, 1971) MOST OF THE METABOLIC REACTIONS ARE CATALYSED BY THE ENZYMES IN THE LIVING CELL ALL THE ENZYMES ARE NOT PRESENT AT ALL THE TIME IN THE CELL, BUT ARE PRODUCED WHENEVER THE CELL NEEDED FROM THE BLUEPRINT IS PRESENT IN DNA THERE ARE NEARLY 75,000 ENZYMES THAT ARE FUNCTIONAL IN THE HUMAN BODY WHICH ARE DIVIDED INTO THREE TYPES: METABOLIC ENZYMES (RESPONSIBLE FOR ANABOLIC AND CATABOLIC PROCESSES), DIGESTIVE ENZYMES (MAINLY EXTRACELLULAR RESPONSIBLE FOR THE DIGESTION OF FOOD), AND FOOD ENZYMES FROM RAW FOODS (RESPONSIBLE FOR INITIATION OF FOOD DIGESTION) (BARNES-SVARNEY & SVARNEY, 2014) GENERAL PROPERTIES: 1 ALMOST ALL ENZYMES ARE PROTEIN IN NATURE EXCEPT A SMALL GROUP OF CATALYTIC RNA MOLECULES THE CATALYTIC ACTIVITY OF THE ENZYME RELIES ON THE STRUCTURAL INTEGRITY OF NATIVE PROTEIN CONFORMATION 2 ENZYMES ARE VERY SPECI?C TO THEIR SUBSTRATES 3 ENZYMES POSSESS HUGE CATALYTIC POWER WHICH INCREASES THE RATE OF A CHEMICAL REACTION BY REDUCING THE ACTIVATION ENERGY WITHOUT ALTERING THE EQUILIBRIUM POSITION OF THE REACTION 4 THE BIOCATALYTIC POWER OF THE ENZYME DEPENDS ON THE OPTIMUM PHYSIO-CHEMICAL PARAMETERS OF THE REACTION SUCH AS PH, TEMPERATURE, AND SALT CONCENTRATION 5 ENZYMES ARE HIGHLY REGULATED IN NATURE GENERALLY, THE ENZYMES ARE CLASSI?ED AS (A) SIMPLE ENZYMES: THE ENZYMES WHICH ARE ENTIRELY MADE UP OF THE PROTEINS CONSTITUTING THE AMINO ACIDS ONLY, E G TRYPSIN, PEPSIN, ETC (BISSWANGER, 2017) (B) CONJUGATED ENZYMES: THE ENZYMES WHICH CONTAIN THE NON-PROTEIN PART CALLED COFACTOR ALONG WITH THE PROTEIN PART, CALLED APOENZYME IN THESE ENZYMES, THE APOENZYME PART IS GENERALLY BIOLOGICALLY INACTIVE, IF THE COFACTOR IS REMOVED THE COMPLETE BIOLOGICALLY ACTIVE CONJUGATED ENZYME (APOENZYME AND COFACTOR) ENZYMES IN FOOD PROCESSING NAWAZ ET AL (2015) ENZYMES IN FOOD PROCESSING 2), METHYL (–CH3), CARBOXYL (–COOH), AMINO (–NH2), ACYL (–RC¼O), AND CARBONYL (–C¼O) THE COMMON NAMES FOR THESE ENZYMES START WITH PRE?X TRANS WITH EXCEPTIONS OF KINASES, PHOSPHORYLASES, ETC (TABLE 1 3) X A Þ Y ! X Þ Y A TABLE 1 2 SOME EXAMPLES OF ENZYMES UNDER OXIDOREDUCTASE CLASS OXIDOREDUCTASE TYPE OF REACTION REFERENCE PEROXIDASES UTILIZE H2O2 AS AN ELECTRON ACCEPTOR GRAMSS AND RUDESCHKO (1998) DEHYDROGENASES OXIDIZE A SUBSTRATE BY REDUCING THE ELECTRON ACCEPTOR OTHER THAN OXYGEN, E G NAD+ PUMIRAT ET AL (2014) OXYGENASE DIRECTLY INCORPORATE OXYGEN INTO THE SUBSTRATE HUANG ET AL (2008) OXIDASES USE MOLECULAR OXYGEN AS AN ELECTRON OR HYDROGEN ACCEPTOR KIESS ET AL (1998) TABLE 1 3 SOME EXAMPLES OF ENZYMES UNDER TRANSFERASE CLASS TRANSFERASE TYPE OF REACTION REFERENCE TRANSAMINASES TRANSFER AMINO GROUP FROM AMINO ACIDS TO KETO ACIDS SMIT ET AL (2009) KINASES TRANSFER OF PHOSPHATE GROUP FROM ATP TO SUBSTRATE MARTÍN ET AL (2010) METHYLTRANSFERASES TRANSFER OF METHYL GROUP FROM METHYL DONOR TO THE SUBSTRATE SHIXIAN ET AL (2006) ACYLTRANSFERASES TRANSFER OF ACYL GROUP TO THE SUBSTRATE KUHAJDA ET AL (2011) ENZYMES IN FOOD PROCESSING EC 5 ISOMERASES THE ISOMERIC STRUCTURES ARE CREATED BY MEANS OF INTRAMOLECULAR ARRANGEMENTS THAT CONVERT ONE ISOMER TO ANOTHER (TABLE 1 6) X Y ! Y X TABLE 1 4 SOME EXAMPLES OF ENZYMES UNDER HYDROLASES CLASS HYDROLASES TYPE OF REACTION REFERENCE ESTERASES CLEAVE ESTERS INTO AN ACID AND AN ALCOHOL FAULDS ET AL (2004) PHOSPHATASES REMOVE PHOSPHATE GROUP FROM A SUBSTRATE MORISSEAU ET AL (2012) PEPTIDASES CLEAVE AMIDE BONDS PRESENT IN THE PROTEINS PERRIER ET AL (2005) TABLE 1 5 SOME EXAMPLES OF ENZYMES UNDER LYASES CLASS LYASES TYPE OF REACTION REFERENCE DECARBOXYLASES REMOVAL OF CO2 BY ELIMINATION REACTIONS VAN DER WERF ET AL (1994) DEHYDRATASES FORMATION OF DOUBLE OR TRIPLE BOND BY ELIMINATION OF WATER SHIBATA ET AL (2010) FERROCHELATASES ADDITION OF DIVALENT METAL CATIONS TO THE TETRAPYRROLE STRUCTURE GAZEL AND YILDIZ (2016) ENZYMES IN FOOD PROCESSING ROLE OF ENZYME THE COLLISION OF AN ATOM, ION, OR MOLECULE OF ONE SUBSTANCE WITH AN ATOM, ION, OR MOLECULE OF OTHER RESULTS INTO A CHEMICAL REACTION BETWEEN THE TWO SUBSTANCES AFTER THIS COLLISION, THE INTERMEDIATE PRODUCT IS PRODUCED, HAVING HIGHER CHEMICAL ENERGY THAN THE CHEMICAL ENERGIES OF BOTH THE REACTANTS TOGETHER THE TRANSITION STATE IN THE REACTION IS ACHIEVED WITH THE HELP OF SOME OF THE ENERGY ENTERING THE REACTION APART FROM THE CHEMICAL ENERGY OF THE REACTANTS THE TRANSITION STATE IS THE STAGE WITH HIGHEST FREE ENERGY THE DIFFERENCE IN FREE ENERGY BETWEEN THE TRANSITION STATE AND THE REACTANTS IS KNOWN AS THE GIBBS FREE ENERGY OF ACTIVATION OR ONLY THE ACTIVATION ENERGY THE ENZYME PLAYS AN IMPORTANT ROLE IN LOWERING THE ACTIVATION ENERGY OF A REACTION WHICH RESULTS IN INCREASE IN THE RATE OF REACTION IN BOTH THE DIRECTIONS HOWEVER, THE ENZYME CANNOT ALTER THE RELATIVE ENERGIES OF THE INITIAL AND ?NAL STATES IN ADDITION, THE CATALYST DOES NOT ALTER THE POSITION OF EQUILIBRIUM OF A CHEMICAL ENZYMES IN FOOD PROCESSING