THEORY, DETERMINATION AND CONTROL OF PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF FOOD MATERIALS
CONTENTS PART I: FOOD POWDERS CHARACTERIZATION 1 SAMPLING THEORY AND STATISTICAL ASPECTS INTRODUCTION: IMPORTANCE OF SAMPLING SAMPLING VARIATION SOURCES MINIMUM SAMPLE SIZE STANDARD SAMPLING DEVIATION SAMPLING TECHNIQUES AND PROCEDURES SAMPLERS AND SAMPLE DIVIDERS SAMPLE DISPERSION REFERENCES 2 PARTICLE PROPERTIES PARTICLE SIZE AND SHAPE INTRODUCTORY DE?NITIONS SELECTION OF RELEVANT CHARACTERISTIC PARTICLE SIZE SHAPE OF PARTICLE RELATED TO SPHERICITY EVALUATION OF SHAPE OUTLINE PARTICLE DENSITY DENSITY EXPRESSIONS LIQUID PYCNOMETRY AIR PYCNOMETRY AERODYNAMIC PARTICLE DENSITY PARTICLE SIZE DISTRIBUTION RELEVANCE OF PARTICLE SIZE DISTRIBUTION TYPES OF PARTICLE SIZE DISTRIBUTION PARTICLE SIZE DISTRIBUTION TENDENCIES PRESENTATION OF DATA SIZE DISTRIBUTION FUNCTIONS ANALYTICAL TECHNIQUES FOR SIZE MEASUREMENT SIEVING MICROSCOPY TECHNIQUES SEDIMENTATION STREAM SCANNING ON-LINE MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES OTHER PRIMARY PROPERTIES SURFACE AREA PERMEAMETRY GAS ADSORPTION MOISTURE 3 BULK PROPERTIES FLOW PROPERTIES INTRODUCTION FAILURE PROPERTIES DE?NITIONS DETERMINATIONS USING SHEAR CELLS DIRECT MEASUREMENT OF FAILURE PROPERTIES OTHER HANDLING PROPERTIES ANGLE OF REPOSE ANGLE OF SLIDE CONVEYING ANGLE ANGLE OF SPATULA CLASSI?CATION OF POWDERS ACCORDING TO HANDLING PACKING PROPERTIES BULK DENSITY AND POROSITY MEASUREMENTS OF BULK DENSITY HAUSNER RATIO FACTORS AFFECTING BULK DENSITY COMPRESSIBILITY STRENGTH PROPERTIES ABRASION FRIABILITY RECONSTITUTION PROPERTIES INSTANTIZING PROCESSES INSTANT PROPERTIES INSTANT PROPERTY EVALUATION PENETRATION SPEED TEST A DYNAMIC WETTING TEST DISPERSIBILITY MEASURING TEST IDF STANDARD METHOD PART II: PRODUCTION, HANDLING, AND PROCESSING 4 STORAGE ALTERNATIVES FOR STORAGE OF BULK SOLIDS OUTDOORS AND STRUCTURED STORAGE STORAGE IN CONTAINERS PRINCIPLES INVOLVED IN STORAGE BIN DESIGN BASIC CONCEPTS OF BULK SOLIDS PLANT RATHOLES ARCHING ERRATIC FLOW SEGREGATION AND FLOODING ELEMENTS OF BULK SOLIDS GRAVITY FLOW FLOW PATTERNS IN STORAGE BINS MASS-FLOW FUNNEL-FLOW EXPANDED FLOW SYMMETRICAL AND NON-SYMMETRICAL FLOW WALL STRESSES IN AXI-SYMMETRICAL BINS DISTRIBUTION OF BIN WALL LOADS CALCULATION OF LOADS IN BINS NATURAL DISCHARGE FROM BINS HOPPER OPENING FOR COARSE BULK SOLIDS MASS-FLOW RATE CALCULATION HOPPER OPENING FOR FINE BULK SOLIDS VELOCITY DISTRIBUTION IN THE HOPPER FACTORS IN?UENCING BIN GEOMETRY FOR MASS-FLOW EFFECT OF THE GAS PHASE ASSISTED DISCHARGE PASSIVE DEVICES ACTIVE DEVICES USE OF FEEDERS TO CONTROL DISCHARGE VOLUMETRIC FEEDERS GRAVIMETRIC FEEDERS LOADS ON A HOPPER FEEDER 5 CONVEYING BELT CONVEYORS COMPONENTS DESIGN ASPECTS APPLICATIONS CHAIN CONVEYORS SCRAPER CONVEYORS APRON CONVEYORS BUCKET ELEVATORS SCREW CONVEYORS MAIN FEATURES OPERATING CHARACTERISTICS CAPACITY AND POWER MAIN APPLICATIONS PNEUMATIC CONVEYING THEORETICAL ASPECTS CLASSI?CATION OF CONVEYING SYSTEMS DENSE-PHASE CONVEYORS PLUG-PHASE CONVEYORS FLUIDIZED SYSTEMS BLOW TANKS LONG DISTANCE SYSTEMS DILUTE-PHASE CONVEYORS TYPES OF CONVEYORS OPERATING FEATURES SYSTEM COMPONENTS SELECTION AND DESIGN 6 SIZE REDUCTION PRINCIPLES OF SIZE REDUCTION INTRODUCTORY ASPECTS FORCES USED IN SIZE REDUCTION MECHANICAL RESISTANCE INVOLVED IN SIZE REDUCTION PROPERTIES OF COMMINUTED PRODUCTS ENERGY REQUIREMENTS: COMMINUTION LAWS RITTINGER’S LAW KICK’S LAW BOND’S LAW AND WORK INDEX SIZE REDUCTION EQUIPMENT CLASSI?CATION FEATURES CRUSHING ROLLS HAMMER MILLS DISC ATTRITION MILLS TUMBLING MILLS OPERATION CRITERIA FOR SELECTION OF COMMINUTION PROCESSES GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS HARDNESS AND ABRASIVENESS MECHANICAL STRUCTURE TEMPERATURE SENSITIVITY 7 SIZE ENLARGEMENT INTRODUCTION: SIZE ENLARGEMENT PROCESSES AGGREGATION FUNDAMENTALS MECHANISMS OF PARTICLE BONDING SOLID BRIDGES IMMOBILE OR FREELY MOVABLE LIQUID BRIDGES ATTRACTION FORCES BETWEEN SOLID PARTICLES FORM-CLOSED BONDS OR INTERLOCKING BONDS STRENGTH OF AGGLOMERATES AGGLOMERATION METHODS TUMBLING OF POWDERS (REWETTING AGGLOMERATION) PRESSURE AGGLOMERATION SPECI?C AGGLOMERATION METHODS STRAIGHT-THROUGH AGGLOMERATION SPRAY-BED DRYER AGGLOMERATION ATOMIZER WHEEL FREEZE-DRYING BINDERS SELECTION CRITERIA FOR AGGLOMERATION METHODS FEED CHARACTERISTICS AGGLOMERATED POWDER PROPERTIES ALTERNATIVE METHODS DESIGN ASPECTS OF AGGLOMERATION PROCESSES APPLICATIONS OF AGGLOMERATION 8 ENCAPSULATION PROCESSES MICROCAPSULES COATING MATERIAL FOR ENCAPSULATION TYPES OF ENCAPSULATED FOOD INGREDIENTS MICROCAPSULES: THEIR STRUCTURE AND RELEASE MECHANISMS SPRAY DRYING EXTRUSION MOLECULAR INCLUSION IN CYCLODEXTRINS COACERVATION CENTRIFUGAL EXTRUSION AIR SUSPENSION COATING SPRAY CHILLING AND SPRAY COOLING CENTRIFUGAL SUSPENSION-SEPARATION CO-CRYSTALLIZATION FINAL REMARKS 9 MIXING MIXING MECHANISMS CONVECTIVE, DIFFUSIVE, AND SHEAR MIXING SEGREGATION OTHER CLASSI?CATIONS FOR MIXING MECHANISMS HORIZONTAL DRUM BLENDER MECHANISM STATISTICAL APPROACH OF SOLIDS MIXING TYPES OF MIXTURES SAMPLING MIXTURE QUALITY: MIXING INDEX AND RATE POWDER MIXERS TUMBLER MIXERS HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL TROUGH MIXERS VERTICAL SCREW MIXERS FLUIDIZED BED MIXERS HOPPER BLENDERS CONTINUOUS BLENDERS SELECTION AND DESIGN CRITERIA FACTORS AFFECTING EQUIPMENT DESIGN MIXER SELECTION BASED ON FLOW PROPERTIES MIXING IN FOOD POWDERED PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT SELECTION BASED ON MIXING COSTS 10 SEPARATION AND CLASSI?CATION INTRODUCTION TO DRY SEPARATION TECHNIQUES SCREENING SCREENING FUNDAMENTALS MASS BALANCES IN SCREENING CAPACITY AND EF?CIENCY FACTORS AFFECTING EF?CIENCY EQUIPMENT USED FOR SCREENING DEDUSTING TECHNOLOGY CYCLONE SEPARATION DIMENSIONLESS APPROACH OPERATING FEATURES AND SELECTION CRITERIA GAS FILTRATION FILTERING FUNDAMENTALS OPERATION CHARACTERISTICS OTHER GAS–SOLIDS SEPARATION TECHNIQUES SCRUBBERS ELECTROSTATIC PRECIPITATORS AIR CLASSI?CATION OPERATING PRINCIPLES EF?CIENCY AND CUT SIZE 11 DRYING DRYING PROCESS LAYOUTS ATOMIZATION CLASSI?CATION ATOMIZERS USING CENTRIFUGAL ENERGY ATOMIZERS USING PRESSURE ENERGY ATOMIZERS USING KINETIC ENERGY ATOMIZERS USING ACOUSTIC/PULSATION ENERGY SPRAY-AIR MOVEMENT MASS AND HEAT BALANCES FREEZE-DRYING PROCESS FUNDAMENTALS OF FREEZE-DRYING FREEZING ICE SUBLIMATION WATER VAPOR CONDENSATION DRYING EQUIPMENT BATCH FREEZE DRYER CONTINUOUS FREEZE DRYER MICROWAVE-HEATING FREEZE DRYER MODI?ED FREEZE DRYERS DRUM DRYING DRUM DRYING PROCESS MASS AND HEAT TRANSFER TYPES OF DRUM DRYERS SINGLE-DRUM DRYER DOUBLE-DRUM DRYER TWIN-DRUM DRYER 12 UNDESIRABLE PHENOMENA AND THEIR RELATION TO PROCESSING ATTRITION ATTRITION MECHANISMS ATTRITION TESTS SINGLE-PARTICLE TESTS MULTIPLE PARTICLE TESTS ATTRITION THEORY AND MODELING PARTICLE BEHAVIOR UNDER CON?NED UNIAXIAL COMPRESSION PARTICLE SIZE DISTRIBUTION VARIATION ATTRITION KINETICS COMPACTION CHARACTERISTICS FRACTAL APPROACH ATTRITION PREVENTION SEGREGATION APPLICATIONS SEGREGATION MECHANISMS SEGREGATION EVALUATION SEGREGATION KINETICS SEGREGATION MINIMIZATION CAKING CAKING MECHANISMS CAKING EVALUATION BY THE GLASS TRANSITION TEMPERATURE CAKING KINETICS FOOD POWDERS AFFECTED BY CAKING CARBOHYDRATES MILK POWDERS PROTEIN-BASED POWDERS CAKING PREVENTION LABORATORY TECHNIQUES AND TEST PROCEDURES DETONATION AND DUST EXPLOSION EXPLOSION MECHANISMS FACTORS AFFECTING DUST EXPLOSIONS EXPLOSION HAZARD EVALUATION MINIMUM EXPLOSIVE CONCENTRATION (MEC) MINIMUM HAZARDOUS MASS (MHM) MINIMUM IGNITION ENERGY (MIE) MINIMUM IGNITION TEMPERATURE (MIT) AND MAXIMUM OXY- GEN COMBUSTION (MOC) EXPLOSIBILITY CLASSI?CATION DUST EXPLOSION PREVENTION ATTRITION REFERENCES SEGREGATION REFERENCES CAKING REFERENCES DUST EXPLOSION REFERENCES