PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY
CONTENTS PART SCIENCE KNOWLEDGE AND DISCIPLINE CHAPTER FOOD GROUPS 11 MACRONUTRIENTS 111 CARBOHYDRATES 112 PROTEINS 113 FATS 12 WATER 13 MICRONUTRIENTS 131 VITAMINS 132 MINERALS 133 A GOOD BALANCED ENERGY PORTFOLIO 14 METABOLISM 15 ENERGY PREFERENCES 151 CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM 152 LIPID (FAT) METABOLISM 153 PROTEIN METABOLISM REFERENCES FURTHER READING CHAPTER FOOD PHASES 21 SOLIDS, LIQUIDS, AND GASES 22 MULTIPHASIC FOODS 23 PHASE SEPARATION 24 PHASE STABILITY 25 PHASE TRANSITION 251 MOLECULAR MOBILITY AND GLASS TRANSITION TASTE, FLAVOR AND AROMA 31 SENSE OF TASTE 32 SENSE OF SMELL: THE OLFACTORY SYSTEM 33 VOLATILITY AND AROMA NOTES 34 SENSE OF TOUCH 35 CHEMESTHESIS 351 ASTRINGENCY 352 PUNGENCY 36 FLAVOR 361 NATURAL AND ARTIFICIAL FLAVORINGS 362 FLAVOR VARIATIONS 37 COLOR OF FOOD 38 TEXTURE IN FOOD 39 REACTIONS AFFECTING FLAVOR 310 TASTING NOTES: FOOD-PAIRING PROTEIN BIOCHEMISTRY 41 AMINO ACIDS: THE BUILDING BLOCKS OF PROTEINS 411 PEPTIDES 412 FOUR LEVELS OF STRUCTURE DETERMINE THE SHAPE OF PROTEINS 413 GLOBULAR AND FIBROUS PROTEINS 42 DENATURATION 421 PROTEIN AGGREGATION: COAGULATION AND GELATION 43 ENZYMES 44 GELATINE 441 ANIMAL GELATINE 442 FISH GELATINE 443 COLD JELLIES 444 TYPES OF GELATINE 45 PROTEINS IN SUMMARY ENERGY AND FOOD 51 BROWNING REACTIONS 511 CARAMELIZATION 512 MAILLARD REACTION 52 HEAT AND FLAVOUR 53 SCALING RECIPES: SURFACE-TO-VOLUME RATIO’S 531 HEAT AND SURFACE-TO-VOLUME RATIO’S 532 DRYING AND SURFACE-TO-VOLUME RATIO’S 54 HEATING AND COLOUR CRYSTALLIZATION 61 CONTROLLING THE SIZE 62 WATER 63 CARBOHYDRATES 64 FATS AND OILS: TRIGLYCERIDES 65 SUGAR 651 CONTROLLING CRYSTAL SIZE 652 PREVENTING/LIMITING CRYSTAL FORMATION 66 CHOCOLATE 661 POLYMORPHISM 662 TEMPERING/PRE-CRYSTALLIZATION RHEOLOGY 71 ELASTICITY, VISCOSITY, AND VISCOELASTICITY 72 SOLUTIONS, COLLOIDS, SUSPENSIONS, GUMS, GELS, AND THICKENERS 721 SOLUTIONS 722 COLLOIDS 723 SUSPENSIONS 724 GUMS, GELS, AND THICKENERS ACIDS AND BASES 81 ACIDIC/BASE FOODS VERSUS ACID/BASE FORMING FOODS 82 COOKING WITH ACIDS AND ALKALIS 83 PROTEINS AND ACIDS HYDROLYSIS, OXIDATION, AND REDUCTION 91 HYDROLYSIS 92 OXIDATION AND REDUCTION 93 VINEGAR 94 VINEGAR PRODUCTION 941 THE ORLEANS PROCESS 942 TRICKLING PROCESS 943 SUBMERGED CULTURES 944 VINEGARS FOR EVERYONE PART FOOD AND SCIENCE CHAPTER 10 BREAD 101 BAKING INGREDIENTS AND THEIR USAGE 1011 GRAINS 1012 PROTEINS AND GLUTEN 1013 TYPES OF GRAINS 1014 TYPES OF FLOURS 1015 FLOUR BLEACHING AND MATURING 1016 LEAVENING 1017 CARBOHYDRATES AND SUGARS 1018 OTHER INGREDIENTS OF BREAD 102 SOURDOUGHS 103 STALING OF BAKERY PRODUCTS CHAPTER 11 MILK AND DAIRY 111 NONFERMENTED DAIRY PRODUCTS 1111 MILK 1112 CREAMS 1113 ICE CREAM 1114 NONCULTURED BUTTER 112 FERMENTED DAIRY PRODUCTS 1121 LACTIC ACID BACTERIA: LACTOBACILLUS AND LACTOCOCCUS 1122 CULTURED BUTTER 1123 FERMENTED/CULTURED MILKS AND CREAMS 1124 COOKING CULTURED/FERMENTED MILKS AND CREAMS 113 CHEESE 1131 MAKING CHEESE 114 EGGS 1141 FREE RANGE AND INDUSTRIALIZATION 1142 THE EGG: ITS PHYSICAL, PROTEIN AND NUTRITIONAL VALUE 1143 GOOD AND BAD EGGS 1144 HANDLING AND STORAGE 1145 EFFECTS OF HEAT AND TIME ON EGGS: PROTEIN COAGULATION CHAPTER 12 MEAT: FOOD AND SCIENCE OF THE ANIMAL KINGDOM 121 PHYSICAL COMPOSITION OF MUSCLE MEAT 1211 MUSCLE TISSUE 1212 CONNECTIVE TISSUES 1213 EPITHELIAL 1214 NERVOUS TISSUE 1215 BY-PRODUCTS: OFFAL 122 BIOCHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF MEAT 1221 ANIMAL PROTEINS 1222 FAT 1223 CARBOHYDRATES, VITAMINS, AND MINERALS 1224 PRE-SLAUGHTER HANDLING 123 POST-MORTEM: FROM FLESH TO MEAT 1231 MEAT PROTEINS 1232 RIGOR-MORTIS—PROTEIN CHANGES 1233 WATER HOLDING CAPACITY 1234 MEAT COLOR—MYOGLOBIN AND OXIDATION 1235 PH CHANGES 1236 COLD SHORTENING 1237 HEAT RING 124 QUALITY, EATABILITY, AND FLAVOR 1241 RIPENING/AGING 1242 MUSCLE ENZYMES AT WORK 1243 WET AND DRY AGING 1244 WATER HOLDING CAPACITY 1245 MEAT GRAIN 1246 FAT 1247 JUICINESS 1248 TASTE 1249 TENDERNESS 125 HUMANE AND INHUMANE MEAT PRODUCTION 1251 CONTROVERSIES IN MODERN MEAT PRODUCTION PRACTICES 1252 HORMONES AND ANTIBIOTICS 126 MEAT SPOILAGE 1261 SPOILAGE BY BACTERIA AND MOULDS 1262 FAT OXIDATION AND RANCIDITY 1263 PREVENTION 127 THE STORAGE OF MEATS 1271 FREEZING AND REFRIGERATION 128 MEAT GRADING 129 THE COOKING OF MEAT 1291 DENATURATION, COAGULATION, AND GELATION OF MEAT PROTEINS 1292 EFFECT OF HEAT ON MEAT 1293 EFFECT OF HEAT ON MEAT FAT 1294 MARINATING, BRINING AND TENDERIZING MEAT 1295 CARCINOGENICS 1296 THE FINAL WORD CHAPTER 13 FISH AND SHELLFISH 131 FISH ANATOMY/MORPHOLOGY 1311 BONES/CARTILAGE AND INNARDS 1312 MUSCLE AND COLLAGEN 132 SPECIES IDENTIFICATION 133 CLASSIFICATION AND IDENTIFICATION 1331 BONY FISHES (OSTEICHTHYES) 1332 JAWLESS FISH (AGNATHA) 1333 CARTILAGINOUS FISHES (CHONDRICHTHYES) 134 FISH COLOR 135 HOW MANY FISH? 136 SHELLFISH 1361 MOLLUSCS 1362 CRUSTACEANS: SHRIMPS, LOBSTERS, CRABS, AND RELATIVES 1363 ECHINODERMS 137 SEAFOOD AND HEALTH 138 QUALITY OF FISH AND SHELLFISH 1381 FRESH AND FROZEN FISH 1382 SHELLFISH: CHOOSING AND HANDLING 139 PERISHABILITY OF SEAFOOD 1391 HEALTH HAZARDS 1310 POTENTIAL CARCINOGENS 13101 THE FLAVOR AND QUALITY OF FISH AND SHELLFISH 13102 COOKING FISH 13103 COOKING SHELLFISH 13104 ECHINODERMS 13105 CRUSTACEA 1311 PRESERVING FISH AND SHELLFISH 13111 DRIED FISH 13112 SALTED FISH 13113 FERMENTED FISH 13114 SMOKED FISH 13115 FISH AND SHELLFISH EGGS CHAPTER 14 FRUITS, VEGETABLES, HERBS, AND SPICES 141 PLANT STRUCTURE: PHYSIOLOGY 1411 IN MORE DETAIL 142 PLANT TEXTURE 1421 CELLULOSE AND LIGNIN 143 PLANT COLORS 1431 GREEN CHLOROPHYLLS 1432 YELLOW, ORANGE, AND RED CAROTENOIDS 1433 RED AND PURPLE ANTHOCYANINS 1434 PALE YELLOW ANTHOXANTHINS 1435 RED AND YELLOW BETAINS 144 PLANTS: DEFINITIONS AND CLASSIFICATIONS 1441 THE BOTANICAL CLASSIFICATION OF CROPS 1442 DESCRIPTIVE CLASSIFICATION OF CROPS 1443 AGRICULTURAL CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTS 145 FRUITS: REPRODUCTION AND RIPENING 146 HERBS AND SPICES 1461 PRESERVING AND STORING AROMA COMPOUNDS 147 SEASONS AND FRUIT AND VEGETABLES 148 POST-HARVEST CONSIDERATIONS 1481 TEMPERATURE CONTROL 149 PLANT FOODS AND HEALTH 1491 PHYTOCHEMICALS 1492 FRUIT AND VEGETABLE FIBER 1493 HERBS, SPICES AND ESSENTIAL OILS 1494 TOXINS IN SELECTED FRUITS AND VEGETABLES 1410 DISCOLORATION AND ENZYMATIC BROWNING 1411 FRUIT AND VEGETABLE FLAVORS 1412 COOKING FRESH FRUITS AND VEGETABLES 14121 HEAT AND THE QUALITIES OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES 1413 PULVERIZING AND EXTRACTION 14131 JUICES 14132 FRUIT AND VEGETABLE FOAMS, EMULSIONS AND ICE CREAMS 1414 PRESERVING FRUITS AND VEGETABLES 14141 FLAVORED OILS, VINEGARS, SYRUPS, AND ALCOHOLS 14142 DRYING AND FREEZE-DRYING 14143 FERMENTATION AND PICKLING 14144 SUGAR PRESERVES: JAMS AND JELLIES 1415 CANNING CHAPTER 15 SAUCES 151 MAKING SENSE: FLAVOR AND CONSISTENCY 1511 OBSTRUCTING THE MOVEMENT OF WATER MOLECULES 152 THICKENING SAUCES 1521 STARCHES 1522 USING STARCHES IN SAUCES 1523 OTHER THICKENING AND GELLING AGENTS 1524 GELATINE AND OTHER PROTEIN THICKENERS 1525 PUREE-TYPE SAUCES 153 EMULSIONS AS SAUCES 1531 EGG EMULSIONS 1532 VINAIGRETTE EMULSIONS 1533 MILK AND CREAM EMULSIONS 1534 BUTTER EMULSIONS CHAPTER 16 LIPIDS, OILS, FATS, AND EXTRACTS 161 OILS AND FATS IN COOKING 162 VEGETABLE OIL 1621 SMOKING (SMOKE) POINT 163 RANCIDITY 1631 OXIDATIVE RANCIDITY 1632 HYDROLYTIC RANCIDITY 164 ESSENTIAL OILS 1641 GENERAL PROPERTIES OF ESSENTIAL OILS 1642 OIL PROCESSING 1643 EXTRACTS 1644 USES 165 BIOACTIVITY AND BIOAVAILABILITY OF OILS 1651 ORAL INGESTION 1652 ABSORPTION THROUGH THE SKIN (TRANSDERMAL) 1653 INHALATION 166 ADULTERATION OF OILS 167 AUTHENTICATING ESSENTIAL OILS CHAPTER 17 CHOCOLATE/CACAO 171 A LITTLE CHOCOLATE HISTORY 172 CACAO BEAN VARIETIES 173 MAKING CHOCOLATE 1731 FERMENTATION AND DRYING 1732 ROASTING 1733 GRINDING AND REFINING 1734 CONCHING 1735 COOLING AND SOLIDIFYING 174 CHOCOLATE FLAVOR 1741 KINDS OF CHOCOLATE 175 COCOA POWDER 176 STORAGE AND FAT BLOOM 177 WORKING WITH CHOCOLATE 1771 CHOCOLATE SEIZING 1772 GANACHE 178 CHOCOLATE AND HEALTH CHAPTER 18 TEA AND COFFEE 181 CAFFEINE 182 TEA 1821 THE TEA PLANT 1822 TEA LEAF PROCESSING: HOW TEA IS MADE 1823 TEA CHEMISTRY 1824 TYPES OF TEA 183 COFFEE 1831 THE ANATOMY OF THE COFFEE CHERRY 1832 THE PROCESSING OF COFFEE 184 WATER FOR MAKING TEA AND COFFEE 1841 COFFEE SPECIES/VARIETIES 1842 TEA, COFFEE AND HEALTH CHAPTER 19 WINE AND BEER 191 FERMENTATION AND YEASTS 192 CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL QUALITIES OF ALCOHOL 193 METABOLIZING ALCOHOL 194 ALCOHOLIC BEVERAGES AND WOODEN BARRELS 195 WINE 1951 WINE: A LITTLE HISTORY 1952 WINE GRAPES: VARIETIES AND CLONES 1953 MAKING WINE 1954 SPECIALITY WINE TYPES 196 STORING AND SERVING WINE 197 ENJOYING WINE 198 BEER 1981 SPECIALTY MALTS 1982 MAKING BEER 1983 STORING AND SERVING BEER CHAPTER 20 SPIRITS 201 DISTILLATION 2011 CHEMICAL COMPOUNDS FOUND IN AGRICULTURAL DISTILLATES 2012 POT STILL 2013 THE COLUMN STILL—CONTINUOUS DISTILLATION 2014 FINISHING THE SPIRIT 202 VARIETIES OF SPIRITS 2021 EAU DE VIE AND WHITE ALCOHOLS 2022 VODKA 2023 GIN 2024 AQUAVITS 2025 GRAPPA, MARC 2026 JAPANESE SHOCHU 2027 RUM 2028 TEQUILA AND MESCAL 2029 BRANDY 20210 WHISKIES AND WHISKEYS 20211 BITTERS AND LIQUEURS, BITTERS AND OTHER FLAVORED ALCOHOLS 20212 MIDDLE GROUND—CHINESE JIU AND JAPANESE SAKE PART SCIENCE KNOWLEDGE AND DISCIPLINE THIS PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK CHAPTER FOOD GROUPS CHAPTER OUTLINE 11 MACRONUTRIENTS MANY MIGHT BE SURPRISED TO LEARN THAT MUCH OF THE FOOD WE EAT IS STILL ALIVE, WHETHER RAW OYSTERS, UNCOOKED FRUIT AND VEGETABLES, FRESH SEEDS, NUTS AND HERBS, AND FERMENTED AND BACTERIALLY ENHANCED FOODS LIKE YOGURTS, CHEESES, SAUERKRAUT, MISO, AND TEMPEH THEY ARE ALIVE IN THE SENSE THAT THEY CONTAIN CELLS THAT ARE STILL LIVING (FIELD, 2011) THE HUMAN BODY THEN, BENEFITS FROM BOTH RAW AND COOKED FOODS IT MUST ALSO BE REMEMBERED THAT OF THE MANY FOODS WE EAT, WE ARE NEVER EATING JUST ONE GROUP, SAY VITAMINS (UNLESS ONE IS TAKING SUPPLEMENTS), FOR EXAMPLE INSTEAD, AN APPLE MIGHT CONTAIN SEVERAL GROUPS OF FOODS INCLUDING VITAMINS, MINERALS, FIBERS, AND CARBOHYDRATES PERHAPS IT SHOULD BE NOTED TOO THAT WHILE CERTAIN FOOD GROUPS ARE INGESTED EVERY DAY (SOME NUTRIENTS ARE REQUIRED ON A REGULAR BASIS) NOT EVERY FOOD GROUPS (IN PARTICULAR THE MICRONUTRIENTS) ARE REQUIRED ON A DAILY BASIS, AS CERTAIN OF THESE CAN BE STORED IN THE BODY (BELITZ ET AL, 2009) IT IS SIMILARLY NOTEWORTHY THAT SOME OF THESE NUTRIENTS CANNOT BE SYNTHESIZED BY THE BODY AND MUST BE INGESTED THROUGH THE FOOD WE EAT BEFORE WE GET INTO THE MIX SO TO SPEAK, IT IS PERHAPS WORTH TAKING A QUICK LOOK AT THE VARIOUS NU- TRITIONAL COMPONENTS THAT MAKE UP OUR FOOD REQUIREMENTS THE TERM “FOOD” APPLIES TO A VARIETY OF OR- GANIC MATERIALS AND CAN BE CATEGORIZED IN A NUMBER OF WAYS FOODS CAN BE GROUPED BY WHETHER OR NOT THEY PROVIDE ENERGY (CALORIFIC VALUE) FOR THE BODY OR NOT OR MORE DESCRIPTIVELY BY SUCH TERMS AS FISH, REMAINING 6%—INCLUDING CARBS AEXTRACELLULAR WATER BINTRACELLULAR WATER SOURCE: COMPILED FROM MULTIPLE SOURCES: LATHAM, MC, 1997 HUMAN NUTRITION IN THE DEVELOPING WORLD FOOD AND NUTRITION SERIES— NO 29 FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANISATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS, ROME; GIBNEY, MJ, ET AL, 2009 INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN NUTRITION BLACKWELL PUBLISHING, OXFORD; EDUWEB, 2010 FACT SHEETS: BODY COMPOSITION RETRIEVED 15 OCT 2017 FROM HTTP://WWWROWETTACUK/ EDU_WEB/; EUFIC, 1998 THE EUROPEAN FOOD INFORMATION CENTRE: WHAT DO WE MEAN BY NUTRITION? RETRIEVED 11 NOVEMBER 2016, FROM HTTP://WWWEUFICORG/ARTICLE/EN/HEALTH-AND-LIFESTYLE/HEALTHY-EATING/ARTID/NUTRITION-2/; GIBSON, M, 2012 THE FEEDING OF NA- TIONS: RE-DEFINING FOOD SECURITY FOR THE 21ST CENTURY CRC PRESS, BOCA RATON, FL CHAPTER 1 FOOD GROUPS SUGAR) THAT IN TURN IS USED AS ENERGY FOR CELLS, TISSUES, AND ORGANS CARBOHYDRATE SUGARS CAN ALSO BE AS- SEMBLED ACCORDING TO THEIR STRUCTURAL COMPLEXITY, THAT IS, THREE PRINCIPAL GROUPS: THE MONOSACCHARIDES INCLUDING GLUCOSE, FRUCTOSE, AND GALACTOSE; THE DISACCHARIDES COMPRISING TWO SUGAR UNITS KNOWN AS SU- CROSE AND LACTOSE; AND THE POLYSACCHARIDES THAT COVER THE STARCHES, CELLULOSE (FIBERS), AND HEMICELLULOSE (LEE ET AL, 2014; CUMMINGS AND STEPHEN, 2007) FOOD, BECAUSE OF ITS HETEROGENEITY, MEANS THAT CARBOHYDRATES ARE NOT CONSUMED IN ISOLATION INSTEAD, THEY ARE FOUND IN A VARIETY OF FOODS THAT ALSO BRING AN ASSORTMENT OF OTHER NUTRIENTS TO THE DIET; THESE INCLUDE VITAMINS AND MINERALS, DIETARY FIBER, ANTIOXIDANTS, AND PHYTOCHEMICALS THESE ARE FOUND IN VARYING AMOUNTS IN FRUITS, VEGETABLES, GRAIN-BASED FOODS, AND SEVERAL DAIRY PRODUCTS 1111 MONOSACCHARIDES—SIMPLE SUGARS MONOSACCHARIDES ARE THE SIMPLEST UNITS OF CARBOHYDRATES AND THE SIMPLEST FORMS OF SUGAR THERE IS THE MAIN MONOSACCHARIDES ARE THE HEXOSES (SIMPLE SUGARS IN WHICH THE MOLECULES CONTAIN SIX CARBON ATOMS)—THESE INCLUDE GLUCOSE (KNOWN ALSO AS DEXTROSE), FRUCTOSE1 (COMMONLY CALLED LEVULOSE), GALAC- TOSE, AND MANNOSE (ELIASSON, 2016) ALL OF WHICH ARE NATURALLY FOUND IN FRUIT JUICES THESE SIMPLE SUGAR FORMS ARE TYPICALLY COLORLESS AND CRYSTALLINE WATER-SOLUBLE SOLIDS MONOSACCHARIDES HAVE A SWEET TASTE, THE BEST EXAMPLES BEING FRUCTOSE AND GALACTOSE AND TO A LESSER DEGREE, GLUCOSE GLUCOSE, HOWEVER, IS WITHOUT DOUBT THE MOST COMMON OF THE MONOSACCHARIDES AND IS ALSO INCIDENTALLY, INDUSTRIALLY MANU- FACTURED ON A LARGE SCALE THROUGH THE HYDROLYSIS2 OF CORNSTARCH BEING LESS SWEET THOUGH, GLUCOSE IS OFTEN USED INSTEAD OF “TABLE” SUGAR (THE COMMON NAME FOR THE DISACCHARIDE—SUCROSE) IN COOKING, ES- PECIALLY IN THE PASTRY KITCHEN MOREOVER, GLUCOSE CAN ALSO BE PREPARED IN RELATIVELY PURE FORM THROUGH HYDROLYSIS OF BOTH DISACCHARIDES AND POLYSACCHARIDES IMPORTANTLY, THE SIMPLE MONOSACCHARIDE GLUCOSE IS ALSO THE EASIEST SUGAR FOR THE BODY TO BREAK DOWN AND METABOLIZE IN FACT, IT IS ONLY IN ITS SIMPLEST FORM, THAT IS, GLUCOSE, THAT SUGAR CAN BE ABSORBED INTO THE BLOOD AND IN A RELATIVELY SHORT SPACE OF TIME TOO (LEE ET AL, 2014) THIS IS WHY EATING SUGARY FOODS AND SOFT DRINKS VERY QUICKLY CAUSES SPIKES IN THE GLUCOSE LEVELS OF THE BLOOD, SOMETIMES REFERRED TO AS A “SUGAR RUSH” ALTHOUGH USEFUL IN MODERATION, IF SUGAR INTAKE IS CONTINUALLY EXCESSIVE, THEN IN THE LONG RUN THIS CAN LEAD TO HEART AND VASCULAR DISEASES (CUMMINGS AND STEPHEN, 2007; ELIASSON, 2016) FRUCTOSE, ANOTHER SIMPLE SUGAR, IS ALSO FOUND NATURALLY IN FRUITS, AND IF CANE OR SUGAR BEET IS HYDROLYZED, ONE MOLECULE OF EACH, FRUCTOSE AND GLUCOSE, IS CREATED FROM EACH MOLECULE OF SUCROSE (SEE SECTIONS 65 AND 10171) (LEE ET AL, 2014) IT IS ALSO WORTH NOTING THAT WHILE HYDROLYSIS OF DI- OR POLYSACCHARIDES PRODUCES MONOSACCHARIDE, MONOSACCHARIDES IN TURN CAN- NOT BE FURTHER HYDROLYZED TO MAKE SIMPLER COMPOUNDS INSTEAD, MONOSACCHARIDES IN TURN BECOME THE BUILDING BLOCKS OF DISACCHARIDES LIKE SUCROSE (TABLE SUGAR) AND LACTOSE SUGARS ARE USED AS SWEETENERS TO IMPROVE THE PALATABILITY AND PRESERVATION OF MANY FOODS THEY ARE ALSO RESPONSIBLE FOR CERTAIN FUNC- TIONAL CHARACTERISTICS IN FOODS LIKE VISCOSITY, TEXTURE, BODY, AND BROWNING OR CARAMELIZATION PROPERTIES SUGARS ALSO INCREASE DOUGH YIELD, INFLUENCE STARCH AND PROTEIN BREAKDOWN, AND CONTROL MOISTURE, CONSEQUENTLY PREVENTING THE DRYING OUT OF CERTAIN FOODS (CUMMINGS AND STEPHEN, 2007) 1FRUCTOSE IS THE SWEETEST OF ALL THE SUGAR CARBOHYDRATES 2HYDROLYSIS IS THE BREAKDOWN OF A COMPOUND BY A CHEMICAL REACTION WITH WATER