RADIATION PROTECTION MANUAL
CONTENTS EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 1 INTRODUCTION 11 PURPOSE 12 SCOPE 13 PARTICLE ACCELERATOR SAFETY 14 REGULATORY AND ADVISORY AGENCIES 141 FEDERAL REGULATION 142 STATE REGULATION 143 LOCAL (COUNTY, CITY) REGULATION 144 ADVISORY ORGANIZATIONS 1441 INTERNATIONAL AGENCIES 1442 NATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS 15 RADIOLOGICAL PROTECTION STANDARDS 2 PARTICLE ACCELERATORS AND ACCELERATOR FACILITIES PARTICLE ACCELERATORS—DE?NITIONS CLASSI?CATION OF PARTICLE ACCELERATORS BRIEF HISTORICAL REVIEW ACCELERATOR RADIATION ION AND ELECTRON SOURCES PARTICLE ACCELERATING SCHEMES BEAM DELIVERY SYSTEMS BEAM STOPS AUXILIARY SYSTEMS 291 HIGH-VOLTAGE AND MICROWAVE POWER SUPPLIES 292 COOLING SYSTEMS 293 VACUUM SYSTEMS 210 SUMMARY OF THE GENERAL SPECI?CATIONS AND PARAMETERS OF ACCELERATORS 211 APPLICATIONS OF ACCELERATORS 212 FUTURE DEVELOPMENTS IN ACCELERATORS 213 SITING AND LAYOUT 3 SOURCES OF IONIZING RADIATION FROM ACCELERATORS 31 INTRODUCTION 32 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 33 RADIATION PRODUCTION AT ELECTRON ACCELERATORS 331 GENERAL 332 ELECTRON BEAMS 333 PHOTON FIELDS 3331 EXTERNAL BREMSSTRAHLUNG 3332 HIGH ENERGIES 334 NEUTRON PRODUCTION 335 MUON PRODUCTION 336 ELECTROMAGNETIC CASCADE 34 RADIATION PROTECTION AT PROTON ACCELERATORS 341 GENERAL 342 PROTON BEAMS 343 NEUTRON YIELDS 3431 NEUTRON PRODUCTION AT LOW ENERGIES (E 200 MEV) 3432 NEUTRON PRODUCTION AT INTERMEDIATE ENERGIES (200 MEV E 1 GEV) 3433 NEUTRON PRODUCTION AT HIGH ENERGIES (E 1 GEV) 344 MUON PRODUCTION 345 HADRONIC (NUCLEAR) CASCADE 3451 GENERAL 3452 QUALITATIVE DESCRIPTION OF THE HADRONIC CASCADE 346 RADIATION ENVIRONMENT 3461 NEUTRON ENERGY SPECTRA 3462 SPECTRA OUTSIDE ACCELERATOR SHIELDING 35 RADIATION PRODUCTION AT ACCELERATORS OF POSITIVE IONS 351 GENERAL 352 LIGHT IONS 353 HEAVY IONS 36 RADIOACTIVATION AT ACCELERATORS 361 GENERAL 362 ACTIVATION BY LOW-ENERGY PARTICLES 363 ACTIVATION BY HIGH-ENERGY PARTICLES 4 RADIATION SHIELDING AT ACCELERATORS 41 INTRODUCTION 42 THEORY OF RADIATION TRANSPORT 421 INTRODUCTION 4211 CONSTRUCT OF THE BOLTZMANN EQUATION 4212 APPROXIMATE SOLUTIONS OF THE BOLTZMANN EQUATION 422 COMPUTER CODES FOR SHIELDING CALCULATIONS THE MONTE-CARLO METHOD MARS EGS4 CODE SYSTEM FLUKA NMTC/HETC MCNP INTEGRATED TIGER SERIES MORSE-CGA TOMCAT 42210 MUSTOP 42211 MUCARLO 42212 MUON89 42213 SHIELD11 42214 PHOTON 42215 STAC8 42216 SKYSHINE-KSU 42217 SKYSHINE III 42218 TRIPOLI 43 PRACTICAL SHIELD DESIGN 431 GENERAL 432 PHOTON TRANSMISSION 433 NEUTRON TRANSMISSION 434 SCATTERING—ALBEDO 435 SCATTER PATHS 44 RADIATION GOALS AND AREA OCCUPANCY AND USE FACTORS 45 DETERMINATION AND SPECI?CATION OF THE BEAM-LOSS TERMS 46 SHIELDING OF ELECTRON ACCELERATORS IN THE ENERGY RANGE FROM 1 TO 100 MEV 461 SOURCE TERM FOR SIMPLE ACCELERATORS 4611 WORKLOAD 4612 PRIMARY AND SECONDARY BARRIERS AND THE ORIENTATION (USE) FACTOR 4613 OCCUPANCY FACTOR 462 PRIMARY BARRIERS FOR PHOTONS 463 SECONDARY BARRIERS FOR PHOTONS 4631 LEAKAGE RADIATION 4632 SCATTERED PHOTONS 464 SHIELDING AGAINST NEUTRONS 47 SHIELDING OF LARGE ELECTRON ACCELERATOR FACILITIES AT HIGHER ENERGIES (E 100 MEV) 471 REVIEW OF SOURCE TERMS 4711 ELECTROMAGNETIC CASCADE 4712 NEUTRON SOURCE TERMS AND ATTENUATION 472 DESIGN OF HIGH-INTENSITY BEAM STOPS AND WALLS 473 DISTRIBUTED LOSS ISSUES 4731 SYNCHROTRON-RADIATION FACILITIES 4732 PHOTON SHIELDING EXPERIMENTS 4733 GENERALIZED LOSS MODEL 48 PROTON ACCELERATORS—TRANSVERSE SHIELDING 481 PARTICLE YIELDS FROM THE PROTON-NUCLEUS INTERACTION 482 PROTON ENERGIES BELOW 3 GEV 483 PROTON ENERGIES ABOVE 3 GEV—THE MOYER MODEL 4831 INTRODUCTION 4832 GENERALIZED FORMULATION OF THE MOYER MODEL 4833 DETERMINATION OF THE MOYER MODEL PARAMETERS 48331 ATTENUATION PARAMETER 48332 ANGULAR-RELAXATION PARAMETER 48333 SOURCE-STRENGTH PARAMETER 4834 PRACTICAL EXAMPLES 48341 POINT SOURCE 48342 IN?NITE UNIFORM LINE SOURCE 48343 FINITE UNIFORM LINE SOURCE 4835 CONCLUSIONS AND LIMITATIONS OF THE MOYER MODEL PROTON ACCELERATORS—FORWARD SHIELDING 491 PROTON ENERGIES BELOW 3 GEV 492 HADRONIC CASCADE ABOVE 3 GEV 493 MUON SHIELDING 410 SHIELDING MATERIALS 4101 EARTH 4102 CONCRETE 4103 OTHER HYDROGENOUS MATERIALS 4104 STEEL 4105 SPECIAL MATERIALS 41051 MATERIALS OF HIGH ATOMIC NUMBER 41052 MATERIALS OF LOW ATOMIC NUMBER 4106 SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS 411 TUNNELS, LABYRINTHS AND DUCTS 4111 INTRODUCTION 4112 DESIGN EXAMPLE FOR PHOTONS USING ALBEDOS 4113 STRAIGHT PENETRATIONS—NEUTRONS AND PHOTONS 4114 TRANSMISSION OF NEUTRONS THROUGH LABYRINTHS 4115 TRANSMISSION OF NEUTRONS THROUGH CURVED TUNNELS 4116 DOOR DESIGN 5 TECHNIQUES OF RADIATION MEASUREMENT AT PARTICLE ACCELERATORS 51 INTRODUCTION TO RADIATION DOSIMETRY AT PARTICLE ACCELERATORS 52 SPECIAL CONSIDERATION OF THE TECHNIQUES OF RADIATION DOSIMETRY IN ACCELERATOR ENVIRONMENTS 53 APPLICATION OF ‘‘CONVENTIONAL TECHNIQUES’’ TO MEASUREMENTS IN ACCELERATOR-RADIATION ENVIRONMENTS 531 INTRODUCTION 532 IONIZATION CHAMBERS 533 GEIGER-MUELLER COUNTERS 534 THERMOLUMINESCENCE DOSIMETERS 54 NEUTRON DOSIMETRY AT PARTICLE ACCELERATORS 541 INTRODUCTION 542 PASSIVE DETECTORS USED FOR NEUTRON DOSIMETRY 5421 THERMOLUMINESCENCE DOSIMETERS 5422 NUCLEAR EMULSIONS 5423 ACTIVATION DETECTORS 5424 THRESHOLD DETECTORS 5425 MODERATED DETECTORS 5426 TRACK-ETCH DETECTORS 5427 BUBBLE DETECTORS 543 ACTIVE DETECTORS USED FOR NEUTRON DOSIMETRY 5431 MODERATED DETECTORS 5432 FISSION COUNTERS 544 NEUTRON SPECTROMETRY 5441 BONNER SPHERES 5442 SPECTRUM-UNFOLDING METHODS 5443 PROTON-RECOIL COUNTERS 55 MIXED-FIELD DOSIMETRY 551 INTRODUCTION 552 RECOMBINATION CHAMBERS 553 TISSUE-EQUIVALENT PROPORTIONAL COUNTERS AND LINEAR ENERGY TRANSFER SPECTROMETRY 554 OTHER TECHNIQUES FOR DIRECT ASSESSMENT OF QUALITY FACTOR AND DOSE EQUIVALENT 555 UNIVERSAL DOSE-EQUIVALENT INSTRUMENTS 56 ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING 561 INTRODUCTION 562 NEUTRONS 5621 ACTIVE MODERATED COUNTERS 5622 THERMOLUMINESCENCE DOSIMETERS 563 PHOTONS 5631 INTRODUCTION 5632 IONIZATION CHAMBERS 5633 GEIGER-MUELLER COUNTERS 5634 THERMOLUMINESCENCE DOSIMETERS 564 MUONS 5641 INTRODUCTION 5642 IONIZATION CHAMBERS 5643 COUNTER TELESCOPES 5644 OTHER TECHNIQUES 565 MONITORING OF RADIOACTIVE EMISSIONS IN AIR 5651 RADIOACTIVE GAS MONITORS 5652 RADIOACTIVE AEROSOLS 57 EPILOGUE 6 ENVIRONMENTAL RADIOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF PARTICLE ACCELERATORS 61 INTRODUCTION 62 SKYSHINE 621 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 622 NEUTRON SKYSHINE 623 PHOTON SKYSHINE 624 COMPARISONS OF SKYSHINE CALCULATIONS 6241 NEUTRON SKYSHINE 6242 PHOTON SKYSHINE 625 COLLECTIVE EXPOSURE TO THE POPULATION 63 INDUCED RADIOACTIVITY OF ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERN PRODUCED BY ACCELERATORS 631 RADIONUCLIDES PRODUCED IN AIR 6311 RADIONUCLIDES PRODUCED DIRECTLY IN AIR 6312 PHOTOACTIVATION 6313 THERMAL-NEUTRON CAPTURE 6314 ACTIVATION BY HIGH-ENERGY NEUTRONS 6315 RADIONUCLIDES PRODUCED IN DUST 6316 GASEOUS RADIONUCLIDES RELEASED FROM IRRADIATED WATER 6317 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF AIRBORNE RADIONUCLIDES 6318 COLLECTIVE EXPOSURE TO THE POPULATION FROM RADIOACTIVITY IN THE AIR 632 RADIOACTIVITY PRODUCED IN EARTH SHIELDING AND GROUNDWATER 6321 RADIONUCLIDES IDENTI?ED IN EARTH AND WATER 6322 MAGNITUDE OF RADIONUCLIDE CONCENTRATIONS 6323 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT AND EXPOSURE TO MEMBERS OF THE PUBLIC 63231 INGESTION 63232 DRINKING CONTAMINATED WATER 63233 INHALATION 633 TRANSFER OF RADIOACTIVITY AT ACCELERATORS 64 RADIOLYSIS IN WATER AND AIR 7 OPERATIONAL RADIATION SAFETY PROGRAM FOR ACCELERATORS 71 INTRODUCTION 72 PROGRAM ELEMENTS 721 ORGANIZATION 722 FACILITY DESIGN 7221 ACCESS AND EGRESS 7222 RADIOACTIVATION 7223 VENTILATION 7224 FACILITY AND EQUIPMENT COMPLEXITY 723 WARNING AND PERSONNEL SECURITY 724 MONITORING AND CONTROL 7241 CONTROL OF RADIOACTIVE MATERIAL 7242 RADIOACTIVE WASTE MANAGEMENT 7243 CONTAMINATION CONTROL 7244 SURFACE CONTAMINATION STANDARDS 7245 GUIDANCE FOR CLEARANCE 725 TRAINING