OCEAN WAVES BREAKING AND MARINE AEROSOL FLUXES
CONTENTS BASIC PROCESSES NEAR THE AIR–SEA INTERFACE INTRODUCTION SEA WATER WATER ON EARTH SEA WATER DENSITY SEA WATER VISCOSITY THE STATE OF MATTER NEAR THE INTERFACE SURFACE TENSION CHARACTERISTICS OF MOIST AIR SEA SURFACE TEMPERATURE AND THE ENERGY BUDGET THE LIQUID–GAS INTERFACE AND ROLE OF WAVE BREAKING TRANSPORT OF GASES ACROSS THE INTERFACE MECHANICS OF STEEP AND BREAKING WAVES THEORY OF THE ALMOST-HIGHEST WAVES INSTABILITIES OF UNIFORM WAVE TRAINS NUMERICAL MODELLING OF STEEP WAVES AND THEIR EVOLUTION TO BREAKING NOTE ON SECOND-ORDER MECHANICALLY GENERATED WAVES NUMERICAL MODELLING OF STEEP WAVE EVOLUTION ONSET OF BREAKING FOR MODULATING SURFACE WAVES SPECTRAL AND STATISTICAL PROPERTIES OF OCEAN WAVES SPECTRAL PROPERTIES OF OCEAN WAVES FREQUENCY SPECTRA OF OCEAN WAVES SPECTRAL MOMENTS AND SPECTRAL WIDTH PARAMETERS TYPICAL SPECTRAL FORMS DIRECTIONAL SPECTRAL FUNCTIONS WAVE ENERGY BALANCE IN SPECTRAL FORM STATISTICAL PROPERTIES OF OCEAN WAVES PROBABILITY DENSITY FUNCTIONS OF SURFACE ORDINATES NUMERICAL SIMULATION OF GAUSSIAN AND NON-GAUSSIAN SEA SURFACE SIMULATION OF LINEAR RANDOM SEA WITH RANDOM PHASES ONLY SIMULATION OF LINEAR RANDOM SEA WITH RANDOM PHASES AND AMPLITUDES SIMULATION OF NON-GAUSSIAN RANDOM SEA PROBABILITY DENSITY FUNCTION OF EXTREME WAVE DISPLACEMENTS STRUCTURE OF EXTREME WAVES PROBABILITY DENSITY FUNCTION OF LOCAL SURFACE SLOPES OF SHORT AND LONG CRESTED WAVES PROBABILITY DENSITY FUNCTION OF WAVE HEIGHTS PROBABILITY DENSITY FUNCTION OF WAVE AMPLITUDES OF NON-GAUSSIAN SEA JOINT PROBABILITY DENSITY FUNCTION OF WAVE AMPLITUDES AND WAVE PERIODS FOR NARROW BANDWIDTH WAVES PROBABILITY DENSITY FUNCTION OF WAVE PERIODS 3 3 10 JOINT PROBABILITY DENSITY FUNCTION OF WAVE AMPLITUDES AND WAVE PERIODS FOR ?NITE BANDWIDTH WAVES 3 3 11 PROBABILITY DENSITY FUNCTION OF THE HIGHEST WAVE IN A RECORD EXPERIMENTAL INSIGHTS INTO MECHANISMS OF WAVE BREAKING DE?NITIONS OF PARAMETERS OF STEEP AND BREAKING WAVES FIELD OBSERVATIONS ON WAVE BREAKING WAVE GAUGE METHOD VISUAL METHOD AIR ENTRAINMENT METHOD ACOUSTIC METHOD LABORATORY EXPERIMENTS ON WAVE BREAKING BONMARIN’S (1989) EXPERIMENT RAPP AND MELVILLE’S (1990) EXPERIMENT OCEAN BASIN EXPERIMENT OTHER EXPERIMENTS SIMULATION OF STEEP RANDOM WAVES IN WAVE TANKS CHIRP PULSE GENERATION APPROACH IMAGE PROCESSING TECHNIQUE AMPLITUDE MODULATED WAVE PACKET APPROACH PHYSICAL SIMULATION OF EXTREME OCEAN WAVES IN LARGE SCALE DETECTION OF BREAKING IN A GIVEN WAVE RECORD WAVELET TRANSFORM APPROACH (WT) PHASE-TIME METHOD SUMMARY OF EXPERIMENTAL DATA GLOBAL BREAKING WAVE CHARACTERISTICS LOCAL BREAKING WAVE CHARACTERISTICS WAVE BREAKING CRITERIA AND PROBABILITY OF BREAKING LIMITING WAVE STEEPNESS CRITERION GLOBAL AND LOCAL LIMITING WAVE STEEPNESS PROBABILITY OF WAVE BREAKING BASED ON THE GLOBAL LIMITING WAVE STEEPNESS CRITERION PROBABILITY OF WAVE BREAKING BASED ON THE LOCAL LIMITING WAVE STEEPNESS CRITERION LIMITING VERTICAL ACCELERATION CRITERION DE?NITION OF PARTICLE ACCELERATIONS IN THE WAVE ?ELD LIMITING VERTICAL ACCELERATION FOR REGULAR WAVES FENTON’S ?FTH-ORDER STOKES THEORY LONGUET–HIGGINS’ SOLUTION FOR STEEP WAVES RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN EULERIAN AND LANGRANGIAN ACCELERATION LIMITING VERTICAL ACCELERATION FOR IRREGULAR WAVES EXPERIMENTAL DATA ON LAGRANGIAN ACCELERATION BEST ?T OF THE ?FTH-ORDER STOKES PRO?LE TO THE EXPERIMENTAL PRO?LE TWO-SCALE METHODOLOGY FOR SHORT WAVE COMPONENTS RIDING ON THE SURFACE OF LONG WAVES A LOCAL FOURIER APPROXIMATION LIMITING VERTICAL ACCELERATION CRITERION IN PRESENCE OF SURFACE DRIFT PROBABILITY OF WAVE BREAKING BASED ON THE LIMITING VERTICAL ACCELERATION CRITERION KINEMATIC BREAKING CRITERION PROBABILITY OF WAVE BREAKING FOR MODULATED SECOND-ORDER STOKES WAVES ENERGY DISSIPATION DUE TO WAVE BREAKING EXPERIMENTS ON THE RATES OF ENERGY DISSIPATION IN BREAKING WAVES THEORETICAL MODELS OF WAVE ENERGY DISSIPATION EQUILIBRIUM RANGE MODEL WHITECAP MODEL OF WAVE ENERGY DISSIPATION FOR FULLY DEVELOPED WIND-SEA SPECTRUM PROBABILITY MODEL OF WAVE ENERGY DISSIPATION FOR VERY NARROW FREQUENCY SPECTRUM PROBABILITY MODEL FOR WAVE ENERGY DISSIPATION BASED ON TWO-DIMENSIONAL PROBABILITY DENSITY FUNCTION F(A, T) SUMMARY OF FORMULAE FOR WAVE ENERGY DISSIPATION WHITECAP COVERAGE OF THE SEA SURFACE EXPERIMENTAL DATA ON WHITECAP COVERAGE THEORETICAL MODELS OF WHITECAP COVERAGE WHITECAP COVERAGE MODEL BASED ON THE PHILLIPS THEORY FOR EQUILIBRIUM RANGE WHITECAP COVERAGE MODEL BASED ON THE LIMITING STEEPNESS CRITERION WHITECAP COVERAGE MODEL BASED ON THE VERTICAL ACCELERATION CRITERION WHITECAP COVERAGE MODEL BASED ON THE GEOMETRY OF SPILLING BREAKERS WHITECAP COVERAGE MODEL FOR THE NON-GAUSSIAN WAVE ?ELD SUMMARY OF DATA AND THEORETICAL FORMULAE ON WHITECAP COVERAGE FUNDAMENTALS OF MARINE AEROSOLS BUBBLE ENTRAINMENT IN BREAKING WAVES DE?NITIONS OF AEROSOL PARTICLE SIZE, CONCENTRATIONS, ?UXES AND SPRAY GENERATION FUNCTIONS SIZE-DEPENDENT NUMBER CONCENTRATIONS SIZE-DEPENDENT MASS CONCENTRATIONS AEROSOL ?UXES SPRAY GENERATION FUNCTIONS MECHANISMS OF AEROSOL PRODUCTION DROPS FROM BURSTING BUBBLES JET DROPLETS FILM DROPLETS SPUME DROPLETS REMARKS ON IN?UENCE OF MARINE AEROSOLS ON CLIMATE ATMOSPHERE-OCEAN GAS EXCHANGE DUE TO BUBBLES GENERATED BY WAVE BREAKING CLIMATE CONNECTIONS MARINE AEROSOL ?UXES GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS METHODS OF DETERMINING SIZE-DEPENDENT SEA SPRAY GENERATION FUNCTIONS WHITECAP METHOD VERTICAL CONCENTRATION GRADIENT METHOD DRY DEPOSITION METHOD WET DEPOSITION MECHANISM EDDY CORRELATION METHOD COMPARISON OF ?UX ESTIMATES SUMMARY REMARKS 10 AEROSOL ?UX AS A FUNCTION OF SEA STATE PARAMETERS 10 1 INTRODUCTION 10 2 GOVERNING RELATIONSHIPS 10 3 DEPENDENCE OF ENERGY DISSIPATION RATE ON SEA STATE PARAMETERS 10 4 DEPENDENCE OF WHITECAP COVERAGE ON SEA STATE PARAMETERS 10 5 DEPENDENCE OF AEROSOL ?UX ON SEA STATE PARAMETERS 10 6 DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS OF AEROSOL ?UX FROM THE SEA SURFACE 10 7 ALTERNATIVE REPRESENTATION OF AEROSOL ?UX 11 SEASONAL DEPENDENCE OF AEROSOL ?UXES IN THE BALTIC SEA 11 1 INTRODUCTION 11 2 WIND ?ELD IN THE BALTIC SEA 11 3 WAVE CLIMATE IN THE BALTIC SEA 11 4 SEASONAL DEPENDENCE OF THE AEROSOL BUDGET OVER THE BALTIC SEA