APPLIED PHYSICS FOR SECONDARY EDUCATION
3 5 OCCUPATIONAL EXPOSURE 3 5 1 SOURCES OF EXPOSURE 3 5 2 JUSTIFICATION, OPTIMIZATION AND DOSE LIMITATION 3 5 3 CONDITIONS FOR PREGNANT WORKERS AND YOUNG PERSONS 3 5 4 PROTECTIVE CLOTHING 3 5 5 SAFE WORKING PROCEDURES 3 5 6 PERSONAL MONITORING 3 5 7 MONITORING OF THE WORKPLACE 3 5 8 HEALTH SURVEILLANCE 3 5 9 LOCAL RULES AND SUPERVISION 3 6 PUBLIC EXPOSURE 3 6 1 JUSTIFICATION, OPTIMIZATION AND DOSE LIMITATION 3 6 2 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS 3 6 3 EXPOSURE FROM PATIENTS 3 6 4 TRANSPORT OF SOURCES 3 7 MEDICAL EXPOSURE 3 7 1 JUSTIFICATION OF MEDICAL EXPOSURE 3 7 2 OPTIMIZATION OF PROTECTION 3 7 3 HELPING IN THE CARE, SUPPORT OR COMFORT OF PATIENTS 3 7 4 BIOMEDICAL RESEARCH 3 7 5 LOCAL RULES 3 8 POTENTIAL EXPOSURE 3 8 1 SAFETY ASSESSMENT AND ACCIDENT PREVENTION 3 8 2 EMERGENCY PLANS 3 8 3 REPORTING AND LESSONS LEARNED 3 9 QUALITY ASSURANCE 3 9 1 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 3 9 2 AUDIT CHAPTER 4 RADIONUCLIDE PRODUCTION 4 1 THE ORIGINS OF DIFFERENT NUCLEI 4 1 1 INDUCED RADIOACTIVITY 4 1 2 NUCLIDE CHART AND LINE OF NUCLEAR STABILITY 4 1 3 BINDING ENERGY, Q-VALUE, REACTION THRESHOLD AND NUCLEAR REACTION FORMALISM 4 1 4 TYPES OF NUCLEAR REACTION, REACTION CHANNELS AND CROSS-SECTION 4 2 REACTOR PRODUCTION 4 2 1 PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION AND NEUTRON SPECTRUM 4 2 2 THERMAL AND FAST NEUTRON REACTIONS 4 2 3 NUCLEAR FISSION, FISSION PRODUCTS 4 3 ACCELERATOR PRODUCTION 4 3 1 CYCLOTRON, PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION, NEGATIVE AND POSITIVE IONS 4 3 2 COMMERCIAL PRODUCTION (LOW AND HIGH ENERGY) 4 3 3 IN-HOUSE LOW ENERGY PRODUCTION (PET) 4 3 4 TARGETRY, OPTIMIZING THE PRODUCTION REGARDING YIELD AND IMPURITIES, YIELD CALCULATIONS 4 4 RADIONUCLIDE GENERATORS 4 4 1 PRINCIPLES OF GENERATORS 4 5 RADIOCHEMISTRY OF IRRADIATED TARGETS 4 5 1 CARRIER-FREE, CARRIER-ADDED SYSTEMS 4 5 2 SEPARATION METHODS, SOLVENT EXTRACTION, ION EXCHANGE, THERMAL DIFFUSION 4 5 3 RADIATION PROTECTION CONSIDERATIONS AND HOT-BOX FACILITIES CHAPTER 5 STATISTICS FOR RADIATION MEASUREMENT 5 1 SOURCES OF ERROR IN NUCLEAR MEDICINE MEASUREMENT 5 2 CHARACTERIZATION OF DATA 5 2 1 MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY AND VARIABILITY 5 3 STATISTICAL MODELS 5 3 1 CONDITIONS WHEN BINOMIAL, POISSON AND NORMAL DISTRIBUTIONS ARE APPLICABLE 5 3 2 BINOMIAL DISTRIBUTION 5 3 3 POISSON DISTRIBUTION 5 3 4 NORMAL DISTRIBUTION 5 4 ESTIMATION OF THE PRECISION OF A SINGLE MEASUREMENT IN SAMPLE COUNTING AND IMAGING 5 4 1 ASSUMPTION 5 4 2 THE IMPORTANCE OF THE FRACTIONAL ?F AS AN INDICATOR OF THE PRECISION OF A SINGLE MEASUREMENT IN SAMPLE COUNTING AND IMAGING 5 4 3 CAUTION ON THE USE OF THE ESTIMATE OF THE PRECISION OF A SINGLE MEASUREMENT IN SAMPLE COUNTING AND IMAGING 5 5 PROPAGATION OF ERROR 5 5 1 SUMS AND DIFFERENCES 5 5 2 MULTIPLICATION AND DIVISION BY A CONSTANT 5 5 3 PRODUCTS AND RATIOS 5 6 APPLICATIONS OF STATISTICAL ANALYSIS 5 6 1 MULTIPLE INDEPENDENT COUNTS 5 6 2 STANDARD DEVIATION AND RELATIVE STANDARD DEVIATION FOR COUNTING RATES 5 6 3 EFFECTS OF BACKGROUND COUNTS 5 6 4 SIGNIFICANCE OF DIFFERENCES BETWEEN COUNTING MEASUREMENTS 5 6 5 MINIMUM DETECTABLE COUNTS, COUNT RATE AND ACTIVITY 5 6 6 COMPARING COUNTING SYSTEMS 5 6 7 ESTIMATING REQUIRED COUNTING TIMES 5 6 8 CALCULATING UNCERTAINTIES IN THE MEASUREMENT OF PLASMA VOLUME IN PATIENTS 5 7 APPLICATION OF STATISTICAL ANALYSIS: DETECTOR PERFORMANCE 5 7 1 ENERGY RESOLUTION OF SCINTILLATION DETECTORS 5 7 2 INTERVALS BETWEEN SUCCESSIVE EVENTS 5 7 3 PARALYSABLE DEAD TIME CHAPTER 6 BASIC RADIATION DETECTORS 6 1 INTRODUCTION 6 1 1 RADIATION DETECTORS — COMPLEXITY AND RELEVANCE 6 1 2 INTERACTION MECHANISMS, SIGNAL FORMATION AND DETECTOR TYPE 6 1 3 COUNTING, CURRENT, INTEGRATING MODE 6 1 4 DETECTOR REQUIREMENTS 6 2 GAS FILLED DETECTORS 6 2 1 BASIC PRINCIPLES 6 3 SEMICONDUCTOR DETECTORS 6 3 1 BASIC PRINCIPLES 6 3 2 SEMICONDUCTOR DETECTORS 6 4 SCINTILLATION DETECTORS AND STORAGE PHOSPHORS 6 4 1 BASIC PRINCIPLES 6 4 2 LIGHT SENSORS 6 4 3 SCINTILLATOR MATERIALS CHAPTER 7 ELECTRONICS RELATED TO NUCLEAR MEDICINE IMAGING DEVICES 7 1 INTRODUCTION 7 2 PRIMARY RADIATION DETECTION PROCESSES 7 2 1 SCINTILLATION COUNTERS 7 2 2 GAS FILLED DETECTION SYSTEMS 7 2 3 SEMICONDUCTOR DETECTORS 7 3 IMAGING DETECTORS 7 3 1 THE GAMMA CAMERA 7 3 2 THE POSITRON CAMERA 7 3 3 MULTIWIRE PROPORTIONAL CHAMBER BASED X RAY AND ? RAY IMAGERS 7 3 4 SEMICONDUCTOR IMAGERS 7 3 5 THE AUTORADIOGRAPHY IMAGER 7 4 SIGNAL AMPLIFICATION 7 4 1 TYPICAL AMPLIFIER 7 4 2 PROPERTIES OF AMPLIFIERS 7 5 SIGNAL PROCESSING 7 5 1 ANALOGUE SIGNAL UTILIZATION 7 5 2 SIGNAL DIGITIZATION 7 5 3 PRODUCTION AND USE OF TIMING INFORMATION 7 6 OTHER ELECTRONICS REQUIRED BY IMAGING SYSTEMS 7 6 1 POWER SUPPLIES 7 6 2 UNINTERRUPTIBLE POWER SUPPLIES 7 6 3 OSCILLOSCOPES 7 7 SUMMARY CHAPTER 8 GENERIC PERFORMANCE MEASURES 8 1 INTRINSIC AND EXTRINSIC MEASURES 8 1 1 GENERIC NUCLEAR MEDICINE IMAGERS 8 1 2 INTRINSIC PERFORMANCE 8 1 3 EXTRINSIC PERFORMANCE 8 2 ENERGY RESOLUTION 8 2 1 ENERGY SPECTRUM 8 2 2 INTRINSIC MEASUREMENT — ENERGY RESOLUTION 8 2 3 IMPACT OF ENERGY RESOLUTION ON EXTRINSIC IMAGER PERFORMANCE 8 3 SPATIAL RESOLUTION 8 3 1 SPATIAL RESOLUTION BLURRING 8 3 2 GENERAL MEASURES OF SPATIAL RESOLUTION 8 3 3 INTRINSIC MEASUREMENT — SPATIAL RESOLUTION 8 3 4 EXTRINSIC MEASUREMENT — SPATIAL RESOLUTION 8 4 TEMPORAL RESOLUTION 8 4 1 INTRINSIC MEASUREMENT — TEMPORAL RESOLUTION 8 4 2 DEAD TIME 8 4 3 COUNT RATE PERFORMANCE MEASURES 8 5 SENSITIVITY 8 5 1 IMAGE NOISE AND SENSITIVITY 8 5 2 EXTRINSIC MEASURE — SENSITIVITY 8 6 IMAGE QUALITY 8 6 1 IMAGE UNIFORMITY 8 6 2 RESOLUTION/NOISE TRADE-OFF 8 7 OTHER PERFORMANCE MEASURES CHAPTER 9 PHYSICS IN THE RADIOPHARMACY 9 1 THE MODERN RADIONUCLIDE CALIBRATOR 9 1 1 CONSTRUCTION OF DOSE CALIBRATORS 9 1 2 CALIBRATION OF DOSE CALIBRATORS 9 1 3 UNCERTAINTY OF ACTIVITY MEASUREMENTS 9 1 4 MEASURING PURE ? EMITTERS 9 1 5 PROBLEMS ARISING FROM RADIONUCLIDE CONTAMINANTS 9 2 DOSE CALIBRATOR ACCEPTANCE TESTING AND QUALITY CONTROL 9 2 1 ACCEPTANCE TESTS 9 2 2 QUALITY CONTROL 9 3 STANDARDS APPLYING TO DOSE CALIBRATORS 9 4 NATIONAL ACTIVITY INTERCOMPARISONS 9 5 DISPENSING RADIOPHARMACEUTICALS FOR INDIVIDUAL PATIENTS 9 5 1 ADJUSTING THE ACTIVITY FOR DIFFERENCES IN PATIENT SIZE AND WEIGHT 9 5 2 PAEDIATRIC DOSAGE CHARTS 9 5 3 DIAGNOSTIC REFERENCE LEVELS IN NUCLEAR MEDICINE 9 6 RADIATION SAFETY IN THE RADIOPHARMACY 9 6 1 SURFACE CONTAMINATION LIMITS 9 6 2 WIPE TESTS AND DAILY SURVEYS 9 6 3 MONITORING OF STAFF FINGER DOSES DURING DISPENSING 9 7 PRODUCT CONTAINMENT ENCLOSURES 9 7 1 FUME CUPBOARDS 9 7 2 LAMINAR FLOW CABINETS 9 7 3 ISOLATOR CABINETS 9 8 SHIELDING FOR RADIONUCLIDES 9 8 1 SHIELDING FOR ?, ? AND POSITRON EMITTERS 9 8 2 TRANSMISSION FACTORS FOR LEAD AND CONCRETE 9 9 DESIGNING A RADIOPHARMACY 9 10 SECURITY OF THE RADIOPHARMACY 9 11 RECORD KEEPING 9 11 1 QUALITY CONTROL RECORDS 9 11 2 RECORDS OF RECEIPT OF RADIOACTIVE MATERIALS 9 11 3 RECORDS OF RADIOPHARMACEUTICAL PREPARATION AND DISPENSING 9 11 4 RADIOACTIVE WASTE RECORDS CHAPTER 10 NON-IMAGING DETECTORS AND COUNTERS 10 1 INTRODUCTION 10 2 OPERATING PRINCIPLES OF RADIATION DETECTORS 10 2 1 IONIZATION DETECTORS 10 2 2 SCINTILLATION DETECTORS 10 3 RADIATION DETECTOR PERFORMANCE 10 3 1 SENSITIVITY 10 3 2 ENERGY RESOLUTION 10 3 3 COUNT RATE PERFORMANCE (‘SPEED’) 10 4 DETECTION AND COUNTING DEVICES 10 4 1 SURVEY METERS 10 4 2 DOSE CALIBRATOR 10 4 3 WELL COUNTER 10 4 4 INTRA-OPERATIVE PROBES 10 4 5 ORGAN UPTAKE PROBE 10 5 QUALITY CONTROL OF DETECTION AND COUNTING DEVICES 10 5 1 REFERENCE SOURCES 10 5 2 SURVEY METER 10 5 3 DOSE CALIBRATOR 10 5 4 WELL COUNTER 10 5 5 INTRA-OPERATIVE PROBE 10 5 6 ORGAN UPTAKE PROBE CHAPTER 11 NUCLEAR MEDICINE IMAGING DEVICES 11 1 INTRODUCTION 11 2 GAMMA CAMERA SYSTEMS 11 2 1 BASIC PRINCIPLES 11 2 2 THE ANGER CAMERA 11 2 3 SPECT 11 3 PET SYSTEMS 11 3 1 PRINCIPLE OF ANNIHILATION COINCIDENCE DETECTION 11 3 2 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS FOR PET SYSTEMS 11 3 3 DETECTOR SYSTEMS 11 3 4 DATA ACQUISITION 11 3 5 DATA CORRECTIONS 11 4 SPECT/CT AND PET/CT SYSTEMS 11 4 1 CT USES IN EMISSION TOMOGRAPHY 11 4 2 SPECT/CT 11 4 3 PET/CT CHAPTER 12 COMPUTERS IN NUCLEAR MEDICINE 12 1 PHENOMENAL INCREASE IN COMPUTING CAPABILITIES 12 1 1 MOORE’S LAW 12 1 2 HARDWARE VERSUS ‘PEOPLEWARE’ 12 1 3 FUTURE TRENDS 12 2 STORING IMAGES ON A COMPUTER 12 2 1 NUMBER SYSTEMS 12 2 2 DATA REPRESENTATION 12 2 3 IMAGES AND VOLUMES 12 3 IMAGE PROCESSING 12 3 1 SPATIAL FREQUENCIES 12 3 2 SAMPLING REQUIREMENTS 12 3 3 CONVOLUTION 12 3 4 FILTERING 12 3 5 BAND-PASS FILTERS 12 3 6 DECONVOLUTION 12 3 7 IMAGE RESTORATION FILTERS 12 3 8 OTHER PROCESSING 12 4 DATA ACQUISITION 12 4 1 ACQUISITION MATRIX SIZE AND SPATIAL RESOLUTION 12 4 2 STATIC AND DYNAMIC PLANAR ACQUISITION 12 4 3 SPECT 12 4 4 PET ACQUISITION 12 4 5 GATED ACQUISITION 12 4 6 LIST-MODE 12 5 FILE FORMAT 12 5 1 FILE FORMAT DESIGN 12 5 2 COMMON IMAGE FILE FORMATS 12 5 3 MOVIE FORMATS 12 5 4 NUCLEAR MEDICINE DATA REQUIREMENTS 12 5 5 COMMON NUCLEAR MEDICINE DATA STORAGE FORMATS 12 6 INFORMATION SYSTEM 12 6 1 DATABASE 12 6 2 HOSPITAL INFORMATION SYSTEM 12 6 3 RADIOLOGY INFORMATION SYSTEM 12 6 4 PICTURE ARCHIVING AND COMMUNICATION SYSTEM 12 6 5 SCHEDULING 12 6 6 BROKER 12 6 7 SECURITY