NANOSCALE SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
1 POLARIZATION AND REMOTE SENSING 1 2 PHOTOMETRY 28 3 POLARIZATION 47 4 STOKES PARAMETERS 68 5 INSTRUMENTATION 75 6 DATA ACQUISITION AND STORAGE 86 7 DATA ANALYSIS 90 8 POLARIZATION AND SURFACE ROUGHNESS 95 9 POLARIZED LASER RETROREFLECTANCE 106 10 REMOTE SENSING OF SEISMIC DISTURBANCES 125 11 HIGH RESOLUTION SPACE SHUTTLE POLARIMETRY FOR FARM CROP CLASSIFICATION 139 12 PLANETARY REMOTE SENSING ATMOSPHERES 156 13 EFFECT OF AEROSOLS ON OPTICAL REMOTELY SENSED DATA 175 14 COMPARISON BETWEEN INFRARED MARTIAN DISK SPECTRA AND OPTICAL PROPERTIES OF TERRESTRIAL ANALOGS 193 CONTENTS 15 THE INTERSTELLAR MEDIUM ULTRAVIOLET COMPLEX INDEX OF REFRACTION OF SEVERAL CANDIDATE MATERIALS 217 16 ANOMALOUS REFRACTIVE INDEX OF SUBMICROMETER SIZED PARTICULATES 235 17 ULTRAVIOLET SPECTRA OF ORGANIC MOLECULES AND THE INTERSTELLAR MEDIUM 242 18 COMPLEX INDEX OF REFRACTION OF BULK SOLID CARBON DIOXIDE 246 19 STAR ENVIRONMENTS 251 20 OPTICAL PROPERTIES OF CONTINENTAL HAZE AND CUMULUS AND OROGRAPHIC CLOUDS BASED ON SPACE SHUTTLE POLARIMETRIC OBSERVATIONS 259 21 VOLUMETRIC SCATTERING AND ABSORPTION BY AEROSOLS PARAMETRIC SENSITIVITY IN MIE MODELING AND COMPARISONS TO OBSERVATIONS 281 22 RADIATIVE TRANSFER PROPERTIES OF THE SAHARA REGION 302 23 METEOROLOGICAL ANALYSIS OF CHEMICAL EXCHANGE EVENTS IN THE ARCTIC BASIN 328 24 OPTICAL ENHANCEMENT OF AIRCRAFT DETECTION USING POLARIZATION 347 25 DETECTION OF VEHICLES AND PERSONNEL USING POLARIZATION 364 26 OPTICAL REMOTE SENSING OF THE SEA A CARIBBEAN EXAMPLE 369 27 PHYSICAL VARIATION OF WATER VAPOR AND THE RELATION WITH CARBON DIOXIDE 398 1 POLARIZATION AND REMOTE SENSING I INTRODUCTION PHOTOMETRY HAS BEEN USED AS A TECHNIQUE FOR OPTICAL SENSING EVER SINCE HUMANS RST LOOKED AT THE HORIZON INTERPRETATION OF PHOTOMETRIC DATA IS OF VALUE IN OBTAINING GEOLOGICAL OR GEOPHYSICAL INFORMATION FROM AIRCRAFT EARTH METEOROLOGICAL OR PLANETARY SATELLITES OR PLANETARY LANDING CRAFT HOWEVER EXTENSIVE SPECTRAL RE ECTANCE MEASUREMENTS ARE NECESSARY TO REDUCE AMBI GUITY IN DATA INTERPRETATION VAST AMOUNTS OF PHOTOMETRIC DATA ARE READILY OBTAINED FROM OBSERVATIONS OF PLANETARY SURFACES SUCH MEASUREMENTS WERE MADE BY KRINOV 1 ON VARIOUS SOILS ROCKS AND SANDS AND SOME VEGETATION ADDITIONAL MEASUREMENTS WERE MADE BY BAUER AND DUTTON 2 ON FARMLANDS AND WOODED HILLS OF WISCONSIN AND BY ROMANOVA 3 WHERE SAND DEPOSITS THE DATA MAY ULTIMATELY BE PRESENTED GRAPHICALLY OR AS A PICTURE HOWEVER RE ECTED LIGHT IN ITSELF IS A FUNCTION OF THE ANGLE OF INCIDENCE I OF RADIATION UPON THE SURFACE BEING INVESTIGATED AS WELL AS THE VIEWING ANGLE Q SEE FIG 1 ALSO THE RE ECTED LIGHT MAY BE DEPICTED IN TERMS OF A PHASE ANGLE A AND MEASURED IN THE PLANE OF VISION CONTAINING THE LINES OF INCIDENCE AND EMERGENCE E G THE SOURCE PLANETARY SURFACE AND SENSOR SEE FIG 1 THE E ECT OF INCIDENT ANGLE HAS BEEN SHOWN BY KONDRATIEV AND MANOLOVA 4 AND THE E ECT OF VIEWING ANGLE BY ASHBURN AND WELDON 5 AND COULSON 6 IN LUNAR SURFACE SIMULATION ORLOVA 7 HAPKE AND VAN HORN 8 AND HALAJIAN AND SPAGNOLO 9 SOUGHT TO DEPICT THE DIRECTIONAL RE ECTANCE OF THE LUNAR SURFACE THE DATA ARE FREQUENTLY AMBIGUOUS BUT THE AMBIGUITY MAY BE REDUCED OR THE DATA RENDERED UNIQUE BY THE USE OF POLARIMETRY POLARIZATION INFORMA 1 TION ALREADY EXISTS IN THE SENSOR S PHOTOMETRIC DATA AND CAN USUALLY BE OBTAINED BY A SIMPLE MODI CATION OF THE SENSOR S OPTICAL PATH FOR POLARIMETRY DURING DATA ACQUISITION POLARIMETRY TOO IS NOT A NEWCOMER HAVING BEEN USED BY LYOT 10 DOLLFUS 11 12 GEHRELS ET AL 13 AND CO EEN 14 FOR LUNAR ANALYSIS AND SIMULATION COULSON 6 AND ASHBURN AND WELDON 5 STUDIED THE POLARI METRIC PROPERTIES OF A DESERT SURFACE FURTHER WORK WAS DONE ON SANDS LOAM AND GRASS BY COULSON ET AL 15 AND COULSON 16 ALSO EGAN AND HALLOCK 17 INVESTIGATED THE POLARIMETRIC PROPERTIES OF VARIOUS MINERALS AND SOME VEGETATION AND EGAN 18 INVESTIGATED SIMULATED LUNAR AND PLANETARY SURFACE MATERIALS THE E ECT OF THE ATMOSPHERE THROUGH WHICH THE POLARIMETRIC AND PHOTOMETRIC OBSERVATIONS ARE MADE MUST NOT BE NEGLECTED THIS E ECT CAN BE PHOTOMETRIC A ECTING THE INTENSITY OR SPECTRAL DISTRIBUTION OF THE ILLUMI NATING LIGHT OR POLARIMETRIC THE INTENSITY E ECT WAS CONSIDERED BY GORDON AND CHURCH 19 AND COULSON AND COWORKERS 15 16 AND THE SPECULAR E ECT BY HENDERSON AND HODGKISS 20 ATMOSPHERIC POLARIZATION WAS ALSO CONSID ERED BY COULSON AND COWORKERS 15 16 LYOT 10 DOLLFUS 11 12 AND EGAN AND FOREMAN 21 FIGURE 1 GEOMETRICAL DEFINITIONS NANOSCALE SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY 2 BECAUSE OF ALL THE FACTORS INVOLVED THE INTERPRETATION OF HIGH SPECTRAL RESOLUTION PHOTOMETRY OR POLARIMETRY FROM SURFACES BENEATH AN ATMOSPHERE IS COMPLICATED BUT IT IS NOT BEYOND THE REALM OF ANALYSIS IN OTHER WORDS SPECTRAL PHOTOMETRY AND POLARIMETRY ARE A FUNCTION OF THE SURFACE THE ANGLES OF ILLUMINATION AND VIEWING AND THE E ECT OF THE ATMOSPHERE THE FACTORS INVOLVED MAY BE READILY SEPARATED BY SEQUENTIAL OPTICAL MEASUREMENTS AS FROM A SATELLITE AND BY SUBSEQUENT ANALYSIS IN TERMS OF GROUND TRUTH DATA OBTAINED BY PREVIOUS OBSERVATIONS AND MEASUREMENTS FOR UNKNOWN PLANE TARY SURFACES THE INTERPRETATION IS DEPENDENT UPON TERRESTRIAL SIMULATION UNTIL THE RST IN SITU VERIFYING MEASUREMENTS ARE MADE II MISSION PLANNING CONSTRAINTS ON EARTH OR IN AIRCRAFT SCIENTI C INSTRUMENTS SUCH AS A POLARIMETER OR PHOTOMETER ARE REQUIRED TO PERFORM UNDER RATHER LIMITED RANGES OF MANEUVER LOADS OR EXTREME ENVIRONMENTS AND WITH THE ACTIVE PARTICIPATION OF PEOPLE IN UNMANNED SATELLITES AND PLANETARY YBYS OR LANDERS THE SCIENTI C EQUIPMENT IS EXPOSED TO A MORE SEVERE ENVIRONMENT THE FACTS THAT A HIGH VACUUM GENERALLY EXISTS AND THAT SOMEWHAT GREATER ACCELERATIONS ACCOMPANY LAUNCH ING CAN COMPLICATE THE DESIGN OF ROTATING COMPONENTS AND ELECTRONICS FOR PLANETARY LANDERS INSTRUMENTATION IS FURTHER SUBJECTED TO THE HIGH HEATING RATES OF ATMOSPHERIC ENTRY AS WELL AS LANDING SHOCK LOADS THE FOLLOWING TYPICAL FACTORS AND THEIR COMBINATIONS CAN MAKE OTHER WISE CONVENTIONAL EARTH BASED LABORATORY MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES FUNCTION ALLY UNSUITABLE FOR PLANETARY EXPLORATION FROM UNMANNED SPACECRAFT THERMAL STERILIZATION PROCESSES TO MINIMIZE PLANETARY BIOLOGICAL CONTAMINATION IN THE CASE OF CAPTURE OR LANDING EXTENDED SOAKING IN THE INTERPLANETARY SPACE ENVIRONMENT RADIATION AND HYPERVELOCITY PARTICLE HAZARD OUTGASSING ETC LIMITED PAYLOAD CAPABILITY E G REQUIREMENT FOR VERY COMPACT LIGHTWEIGHT LOW POWER CONSUMPTION EQUIPMENT EXPOSURE TO A LOW DENSITY IONOSPHERE OR ATMOSPHERE E G POSSIBILITY OF ELECTRICAL BREAKDOWN AND CHEMICALLY REACTIVE GAS COMBINATIONS INSTRUMENT ALIGNMENT REQUIREMENTS AND TRACKING ACCURACY RELATIVE TO POSITION IN SPACE AND PLANETARY SURFACE FEATURES HYPERSONIC IGHT ENVIRONMENT E G HIGH THERMAL LOAD PLASMA LARGE DOPPLER SHIFTS IGHT ATTITUDE VARIATIONS CAUSED BY DECELERATION THROUGH THE PLANETARY ATMOSPHERE THE PASSIVE ROLE OF HUMANS IN THE SYSTEM THE UNIQUE SITUATION PRESENTED BY A MISSION PRO LE AND THE APPRECIATION OF THE TREMENDOUS NANCIAL INVESTMENT NOT ONLY IN THE EXPLORATORY PROGRAM NANOSCALE SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY 3