ADVANCES IN OPTICAL AND ELECTRON MICROSCOPY
CONTENTS INTRODUCTION TRANSMISSION ELECTRON MICROSCOPY CONVENTIONAL TRANSMISSION ELECTRON MICROSCOPY HIGH-RESOLUTION ELECTRON MICROSCOPY ANALYTICAL ELECTRON MICROSCOPY ENERGY-FILTERING ELECTRON MICROSCOPY HIGH-VOLTAGE ELECTRON MICROSCOPY DEDICATED SCANNING TRANSMISSION ELECTRON MICROSCOPY ALTERNATIVE TYPES OF ELECTRON MICROSCOPY EMISSION ELECTRON MICROSCOPY RE?ECTION ELECTRON MICROSCOPY MIRROR ELECTRON MICROSCOPY SCANNING ELECTRON MICROSCOPY X-RAY AND AUGER-ELECTRON MICROANALYSIS SCANNING-PROBE MICROSCOPY PARTICLE OPTICS OF ELECTRONS ACCELERATION AND DE?ECTION OF ELECTRONS RELATIVISTIC MECHANICS OF ELECTRON ACCELERATION DE?ECTION BY MAGNETIC AND ELECTRIC FIELDS ELECTRON LENSES ELECTRON TRAJECTORIES IN A MAGNETIC LENS FIELD OPTICS OF AN ELECTRON LENS WITH A BELL-SHAPED FIELD SPECIAL ELECTRON LENSES LENS ABERRATIONS CLASSI?CATION OF LENS ABERRATIONS SPHERICAL ABERRATION ASTIGMATISM AND FIELD CURVATURE DISTORTION COMA ANISOTROPIC ABERRATIONS CHROMATIC ABERRATION CORRECTION OF ABERRATIONS AND MICROSCOPE ALIGNMENT CORRECTION OF ASTIGMATISM CORRECTION OF SPHERICAL AND CHROMATIC ABERRATIONS MICROSCOPE ALIGNMENT WAVE OPTICS OF ELECTRONS ELECTRON WAVES AND PHASE SHIFTS DE BROGLIE WAVES PROBABILITY DENSITY AND WAVE PACKETS ELECTRON-OPTICAL REFRACTIVE INDEX AND THE SCHR¨ODINGER EQUATION ELECTRON INTERFEROMETRY AND COHERENCE FRESNEL AND FRAUNHOFER DI?RACTION HUYGENS’ PRINCIPLE AND FRESNEL DI?RACTION FRESNEL FRINGES FRAUNHOFER DI?RACTION MATHEMATICS OF FOURIER TRANSFORMS WAVE-OPTICAL FORMULATION OF IMAGING WAVE ABERRATION OF AN ELECTRON LENS WAVE-OPTICAL THEORY OF IMAGING ELEMENTS OF A TRANSMISSION ELECTRON MICROSCOPE ELECTRON GUNS PHYSICS OF ELECTRON EMISSION ENERGY SPREAD GUN BRIGHTNESS THERMIONIC ELECTRON GUNS SCHOTTKY EMISSION GUNS FIELD-EMISSION GUNS THE ILLUMINATION SYSTEM OF A TEM CONDENSER-LENS SYSTEM ELECTRON-PROBE FORMATION ILLUMINATION WITH AN OBJECTIVE PRE?ELD LENS SPECIMENS USEFUL SPECIMEN THICKNESS SPECIMEN MOUNTING SPECIMEN MANIPULATION THE IMAGING SYSTEM OF A TEM OBJECTIVE LENS IMAGING MODES OF A TEM MAGNI?CATION AND CALIBRATION DEPTH OF IMAGE AND DEPTH OF FOCUS SCANNING TRANSMISSION ELECTRON MICROSCOPY (STEM) SCANNING TRANSMISSION MODE OF TEM DEDICATED STEM THEOREM OF RECIPROCITY ELECTRON SPECTROMETERS AND IMAGING ENERGY FILTERS POSTCOLUMN PRISM SPECTROMETER WIEN FILTER IMAGING ENERGY FILTER OPERATING MODES WITH ENERGY FILTERING IMAGE RECORDING AND ELECTRON DETECTION FLUORESCENT SCREENS PHOTOGRAPHIC EMULSIONS IMAGING PLATE DETECTOR NOISE AND DETECTION QUANTUM E?CIENCY LOW-LIGHT-LEVEL AND CHARGE-COUPLED-DEVICE (CCD) CAMERAS SEMICONDUCTOR AND SCINTILLATION DETECTORS FARADAY CAGES ELECTRON–SPECIMEN INTERACTIONS ELASTIC SCATTERING CROSS SECTION AND MEAN FREE PATH ENERGY TRANSFER IN AN ELECTRON–NUCLEUS COLLISION ELASTIC DI?ERENTIAL CROSS SECTION FOR SMALL-ANGLE SCATTERING TOTAL ELASTIC CROSS SECTION INELASTIC SCATTERING ELECTRON–SPECIMEN INTERACTIONS WITH ENERGY LOSS DI?ERENTIAL CROSS SECTION FOR SINGLE-ELECTRON EXCITATION BETHE SURFACE AND COMPTON SCATTERING APPROXIMATION FOR THE TOTAL INELASTIC CROSS SECTION DIELECTRIC THEORY AND PLASMON LOSSES IN SOLIDS SURFACE-PLASMON LOSSES ENERGY LOSSES BY INNER-SHELL IONIZATION POSITION AND SHAPE OF IONIZATION EDGES INNER-SHELL IONIZATION CROSS SECTIONS ENERGY-LOSS NEAR-EDGE STRUCTURE (ELNES) EXTENDED ENERGY-LOSS FINE STRUCTURE (EXELFS) LINEAR AND CIRCULAR DICHROISM MULTIPLE-SCATTERING E?ECTS ANGULAR DISTRIBUTION OF SCATTERED ELECTRONS ENERGY DISTRIBUTION OF TRANSMITTED ELECTRONS ELECTRON-PROBE BROADENING BY MULTIPLE SCATTERING ELECTRON DI?USION, BACKSCATTERING, AND SECONDARY-ELECTRON EMISSION SCATTERING AND PHASE CONTRAST FOR AMORPHOUS SPECIMENS SCATTERING CONTRAST TRANSMISSION IN THE BRIGHT-FIELD MODE DARK-FIELD MODE EXAMPLES OF SCATTERING CONTRAST IMPROVEMENT OF SCATTERING CONTRAST BY ENERGY FILTERING SCATTERING CONTRAST IN THE STEM MODE MEASUREMENT OF MASS THICKNESS AND TOTAL MASS PHASE CONTRAST THE ORIGIN OF PHASE CONTRAST DEFOCUSING PHASE CONTRAST OF SUPPORTING FILMS EXAMPLES OF PHASE CONTRAST THEORETICAL METHODS FOR CALCULATING PHASE CONTRAST IMAGING OF A SCATTERING POINT OBJECT RELATION BETWEEN PHASE AND SCATTERING CONTRAST IMAGING OF SINGLE ATOMS IMAGING OF SINGLE ATOMS IN TEM IMAGING OF SINGLE ATOMS IN THE STEM MODE CONTRAST-TRANSFER FUNCTION (CTF) THE CTF FOR AMPLITUDE AND PHASE SPECIMENS IN?UENCE OF ENERGY SPREAD AND ILLUMINATION APERTURE THE CTF FOR TILTED-BEAM AND HOLLOW-CONE ILLUMINATION CONTRAST TRANSFER IN STEM PHASE CONTRAST BY INELASTICALLY SCATTERED ELECTRONS IMPROVEMENT OF THE CTF INSIDE THE MICROSCOPE CONTROL OF THE CTF BY OPTICAL OR DIGITAL FOURIER TRANSFORM ELECTRON HOLOGRAPHY FRESNEL AND FRAUNHOFER IN-LINE HOLOGRAPHY SINGLE-SIDEBAND HOLOGRAPHY O?-AXIS HOLOGRAPHY RECONSTRUCTION OF O?-AXIS HOLOGRAMS IMAGE RESTORATION AND SPECIMEN RECONSTRUCTION GENERAL ASPECTS METHODS OF OPTICAL ANALOG FILTERING DIGITAL IMAGE RESTORATION ALIGNMENT BY CROSS-CORRELATION AVERAGING OF PERIODIC AND APERIODIC STRUCTURES THREE-DIMENSIONAL RECONSTRUCTION STEREOMETRY ELECTRON TOMOGRAPHY LORENTZ MICROSCOPY LORENTZ MICROSCOPY AND FRESNEL DI?RACTION IMAGING MODES OF LORENTZ MICROSCOPY IMAGING OF ELECTROSTATIC SPECIMEN FIELDS THEORY OF ELECTRON DI?RACTION FUNDAMENTALS OF CRYSTALLOGRAPHY BRAVAIS LATTICE AND LATTICE PLANES THE RECIPROCAL LATTICE CONSTRUCTION OF LAUE ZONES KINEMATICAL THEORY OF ELECTRON DI?RACTION BRAGG CONDITION AND EWALD SPHERE STRUCTURE AMPLITUDE AND LATTICE AMPLITUDE COLUMN APPROXIMATION DYNAMICAL THEORY OF ELECTRON DI?RACTION LIMITATIONS OF THE KINEMATICAL THEORY FORMULATION OF THE DYNAMICAL THEORY AS A SYSTEM OF DI?ERENTIAL EQUATIONS FORMULATION OF THE DYNAMICAL THEORY AS AN EIGENVALUE PROBLEM DISCUSSION OF THE TWO-BEAM CASE DYNAMICAL THEORY INCLUDING ABSORPTION INELASTIC-SCATTERING PROCESSES IN CRYSTALS ABSORPTION OF THE BLOCH-WAVE FIELD DYNAMICAL N-BEAM THEORY THE BETHE DYNAMICAL POTENTIAL AND THE CRITICAL VOLTAGE E?ECT INTENSITY DISTRIBUTION IN DI?RACTION PATTERNS DI?RACTION AT AMORPHOUS SPECIMENS INTENSITY OF DEBYE–SCHERRER RINGS IN?UENCE OF THERMAL DI?USE SCATTERING KIKUCHI LINES AND BANDS ELECTRON SPECTROSCOPIC DI?RACTION ELECTRON-DI?RACTION MODES AND APPLICATIONS ELECTRON-DI?RACTION MODES SELECTED-AREA ELECTRON DI?RACTION (SAED) ELECTRON DI?RACTION USING A ROCKING BEAM ELECTRON DI?RACTION USING A STATIONARY ELECTRON PROBE ELECTRON DI?RACTION USING A ROCKING ELECTRON PROBE FURTHER DI?RACTION MODES IN TEM SOME USES OF DI?RACTION PATTERNS WITH BRAGG RE?ECTIONS LATTICE-PLANE SPACINGS TEXTURE DIAGRAMS CRYSTAL STRUCTURE CRYSTAL ORIENTATION EXAMPLES OF EXTRA SPOTS AND STREAKS CONVERGENT-BEAM ELECTRON DI?RACTION (CBED) DETERMINATION OF POINT AND SPACE GROUPS DETERMINATION OF FOIL THICKNESS CHARGE-DENSITY DISTRIBUTIONS HIGH-ORDER LAUE ZONE (HOLZ) PATTERNS HOLZ LINES LARGE-ANGLE CBED IMAGING OF CRYSTALLINE SPECIMENS AND THEIR DEFECTS DI?RACTION CONTRAST OF CRYSTALS FREE OF DEFECTS EDGE AND BEND CONTOURS DARK-FIELD IMAGING MOIR´E FRINGES THE STEM MODE AND MULTIBEAM IMAGING ENERGY FILTERING OF DI?RACTION CONTRAST TRANSMISSION OF CRYSTALLINE SPECIMENS CALCULATION OF DI?RACTION CONTRAST OF LATTICE DEFECTS KINEMATICAL THEORY AND THE HOWIE–WHELAN EQUATIONS MATRIX-MULTIPLICATION METHOD BLOCH-WAVE METHOD PLANAR LATTICE FAULTS KINEMATICAL THEORY OF STACKING-FAULT CONTRAST DYNAMICAL THEORY OF STACKING-FAULT CONTRAST ANTIPHASE AND OTHER BOUNDARIES DISLOCATIONS KINEMATICAL THEORY OF DISLOCATION CONTRAST DYNAMICAL E?ECTS IN DISLOCATION IMAGES WEAK-BEAM IMAGING DETERMINATION OF THE BURGERS VECTOR LATTICE DEFECTS OF SMALL DIMENSIONS COHERENT AND INCOHERENT PRECIPITATES DEFECT CLUSTERS HIGH-RESOLUTION ELECTRON MICROSCOPY (HREM) OF CRYSTALS LATTICE-PLANE FRINGES GENERAL ASPECTS OF CRYSTAL-STRUCTURE IMAGING METHODS FOR CALCULATING LATTICE-IMAGE CONTRAST SIMULATION, MATCHING, AND RECONSTRUCTION OF CRYSTAL IMAGES MEASUREMENT OF ATOMIC DISPLACEMENTS IN HREM CRYSTAL-STRUCTURE IMAGING WITH A SCANNING TRANSMISSION ELECTRON MICROSCOPE IMAGING OF ATOMIC SURFACE STEPS AND STRUCTURES IMAGING OF SURFACE STEPS IN TRANSMISSION SURFACE-PRO?LE IMAGING ELEMENTAL ANALYSIS BY X-RAY AND ELECTRON ENERGY-LOSS SPECTROSCOPY 10 1 X-RAY AND AUGER-ELECTRON EMISSION 10 1 1 X-RAY CONTINUUM 10 1 2 CHARACTERISTIC X-RAY AND AUGER-ELECTRON EMISSION 10 2 X-RAY MICROANALYSIS IN A TRANSMISSION ELECTRON MICROSCOPE 10 2 1 WAVELENGTH-DISPERSIVE SPECTROMETRY 10 2 2 ENERGY-DISPERSIVE SPECTROMETRY (EDS) 10 2 3 X-RAY EMISSION FROM BULK SPECIMENS AND ZAF CORRECTION 10 2 4 X-RAY MICROANALYSIS OF THIN SPECIMENS 10 2 5 X-RAY MICROANALYSIS OF ORGANIC SPECIMENS 10 3 ELECTRON ENERGY-LOSS SPECTROSCOPY 10 3 1 RECORDING OF ELECTRON ENERGY-LOSS SPECTRA 10 3 2 KRAMERS–KRONIG RELATION 10 3 3 BACKGROUND FITTING AND SUBTRACTION 10 3 4 DECONVOLUTION 10 3 5 ELEMENTAL ANALYSIS BY INNER-SHELL IONIZATIONS 10 4 ELEMENT-DISTRIBUTION IMAGES 10 4 1 ELEMENTAL MAPPING BY X-RAYS 10 4 2 ELEMENT-DISTRIBUTION IMAGES FORMED BY ELECTRON SPECTROSCOPIC IMAGING 10 4 3 THREE-WINDOW METHOD 10 4 4 WHITE-LINE METHOD 10 4 5 CORRECTION OF SCATTERING CONTRAST 10 5 LIMITATIONS OF ELEMENTAL ANALYSIS 10 5 1 SPECIMEN THICKNESS 10 5 2 RADIATION DAMAGE AND LOSS OF ELEMENTS 10 5 3 COUNTING STATISTICS AND SENSITIVITY 10 5 4 RESOLUTION AND DETECTION LIMITS FOR ELECTRON SPECTROSCOPIC IMAGING SPECIMEN DAMAGE BY ELECTRON IRRADIATION 11 1 SPECIMEN HEATING 11 1 1 METHODS OF MEASURING SPECIMEN TEMPERATURE 11 1 2 GENERATION OF HEAT BY ELECTRON IRRADIATION 11 1 3 CALCULATION OF SPECIMEN TEMPERATURE 11 2 RADIATION DAMAGE OF ORGANIC SPECIMENS 11 2 1 ELEMENTARY DAMAGE PROCESSES IN ORGANIC SPECIMENS 11 2 2 QUANTITATIVE METHODS OF MEASURING DAMAGE E?ECTS 11 2 3 METHODS OF REDUCING RADIATION DAMAGE 11 2 4 RADIATION DAMAGE AND HIGH RESOLUTION 11 3 RADIATION DAMAGE OF INORGANIC SPECIMENS 11 3 1 DAMAGE BY ELECTRON EXCITATION 11 3 2 RADIATION DAMAGE BY KNOCK-ON COLLISIONS 11 4 CONTAMINATION 11 4 1 ORIGIN AND SOURCES OF CONTAMINATION 11 4 2 METHODS FOR DECREASING CONTAMINATION 11 4 3 DEPENDENCE OF CONTAMINATION ON IRRADIATION CONDITIONS REFERENCES