THERMOPHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF HELIUM-4
A SURVEY OF SEMICONDUCTORS ELEMENTAL SEMICONDUCTORS BINARY COMPOUNDS OXIDES LAYERED SEMICONDUCTORS ORGANIC SEMICONDUCTORS MAGNETIC SEMICONDUCTORS OTHER MISCELLANEOUS SEMICONDUCTORS GROWTH TECHNIQUES CZOCHRALSKI METHOD BRIDGMAN METHOD CHEMICAL VAPOR DEPOSITION MOLECULAR BEAM EPITAXY FABRICATION OF SELF-ORGANIZED QUANTUM DOTS BY THE STRANSKI–KRASTANOW GROWTH METHOD LIQUID PHASE EPITAXY SUMMARY PERIODIC TABLE OF “SEMICONDUCTOR-FORMING” ELEMENTS QUANTUM MECHANICS TRANSLATIONAL SYMMETRY AND BRILLOUIN ZONES A PEDESTRIAN’S GUIDE TO GROUP THEORY DEFINITIONS AND NOTATIONS SYMMETRY OPERATIONS OF THE DIAMOND AND ZINC-BLENDE STRUCTURES REPRESENTATIONS AND CHARACTER TABLES SOME APPLICATIONS OF CHARACTER TABLES EMPTY LATTICE OR NEARLY FREE ELECTRON ENERGY BANDS NEARLY FREE ELECTRON BAND STRUCTURE IN A ZINC-BLENDE CRYSTAL NEARLY FREE ELECTRON ENERGY BANDS IN DIAMOND CRYSTALS BAND STRUCTURE CALCULATIONS BY PSEUDOPOTENTIAL METHODS PSEUDOPOTENTIAL FORM FACTORS IN ZINC-BLENDE- AND DIAMOND-TYPE SEMICONDUCTORS EMPIRICAL AND SELF-CONSISTENT PSEUDOPOTENTIAL METHODS 1 INTRODUCTION 2 ELECTRONIC BAND STRUCTURES THE K P METHOD OF BAND-STRUCTURE CALCULATIONS EFFECTIVE MASS OF A NONDEGENERATE BAND USING THE K P METHOD BAND DISPERSION NEAR A DEGENERATE EXTREMUM: TOP VALENCE BANDS IN DIAMOND- AND ZINC-BLENDE-TYPE SEMICONDUCTORS TIGHT-BINDING OR LCAO APPROACH TO THE BAND STRUCTURE OF SEMICONDUCTORS MOLECULAR ORBITALS AND OVERLAP PARAMETERS BAND STRUCTURE OF GROUP-IV ELEMENTS BY THE TIGHT-BINDING METHOD OVERLAP PARAMETERS AND NEAREST-NEIGHBOR DISTANCES PROBLEMS PHONON DISPERSION CURVES OF SEMICONDUCTORS MODELS FOR CALCULATING PHONON DISPERSION CURVES OF SEMICONDUCTORS FORCE CONSTANT MODELS SHELL MODEL BOND MODELS BOND CHARGE MODELS ELECTRON–PHONON INTERACTIONS STRAIN TENSOR AND DEFORMATION POTENTIALS ELECTRON–ACOUSTIC-PHONON INTERACTION AT DEGENERATE BANDS PIEZOELECTRIC ELECTRON–ACOUSTIC-PHONON INTERACTION ELECTRON–OPTICAL-PHONON DEFORMATION POTENTIAL INTERACTIONS FRÖHLICH INTERACTION INTERACTION BETWEEN ELECTRONS AND LARGE-WAVEVECTOR PHONONS: INTERVALLEY ELECTRON–PHONON INTERACTION CLASSIFICATION OF DEFECTS SHALLOW OR HYDROGENIC IMPURITIES EFFECTIVE MASS APPROXIMATION HYDROGENIC OR SHALLOW DONORS DONORS ASSOCIATED WITH ANISOTROPIC CONDUCTION BANDS ACCEPTOR LEVELS IN DIAMOND- AND ZINC-BLENDE-TYPE SEMICONDUCTORS DEEP CENTERS 3 VIBRATIONAL PROPERTIES OF SEMICONDUCTORS, AND ELECTRON–PHONON INTERACTIONS 4 ELECTRONIC PROPERTIES OF DEFECTS GREEN’S FUNCTION METHOD FOR CALCULATING DEFECT ENERGY LEVELS AN APPLICATION OF THE GREEN’S FUNCTION METHOD: LINEAR COMBINATION OF ATOMIC ORBITALS ANOTHER APPLICATION OF THE GREEN’S FUNCTION METHOD: NITROGEN IN GAP AND GAASP ALLOYS FINAL NOTE ON DEEP CENTERS QUASI-CLASSICAL APPROACH CARRIER MOBILITY FOR A NONDEGENERATE ELECTRON GAS RELAXATION TIME APPROXIMATION NONDEGENERATE ELECTRON GAS IN A PARABOLIC BAND DEPENDENCE OF SCATTERING AND RELAXATION TIMES ON ELECTRON ENERGY MOMENTUM RELAXATION TIMES TEMPERATURE DEPENDENCE OF MOBILITIES MODULATION DOPING HIGH-FIELD TRANSPORT AND HOT CARRIER EFFECTS VELOCITY SATURATION NEGATIVE DIFFERENTIAL RESISTANCE GUNN EFFECT MAGNETO-TRANSPORT AND THE HALL EFFECT MAGNETO-CONDUCTIVITY TENSOR HALL EFFECT HALL COEFFICIENT FOR THIN FILM SAMPLES (VAN DER PAUW METHOD) HALL EFFECT FOR A DISTRIBUTION OF ELECTRON ENERGIES MACROSCOPIC ELECTRODYNAMICS DIGRESSION: UNITS FOR THE FREQUENCY OF ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES EXPERIMENTAL DETERMINATION OF OPTICAL FUNCTIONS KRAMERS–KRONIG RELATIONS THE DIELECTRIC FUNCTION EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS MICROSCOPIC THEORY OF THE DIELECTRIC FUNCTION JOINT DENSITY OF STATES AND VAN HOVE SINGULARITIES VAN HOVE SINGULARITIES IN ÂI DIRECT ABSORPTION EDGES INDIRECT ABSORPTION EDGES 5 ELECTRICAL TRANSPORT 6 OPTICAL PROPERTIES I “FORBIDDEN” DIRECT ABSORPTION EDGES EXCITONS EXCITON EFFECT AT M0 CRITICAL POINTS ABSORPTION SPECTRA OF EXCITONS EXCITON EFFECT AT M1 CRITICAL POINTS OR HYPERBOLIC EXCITONS EXCITON EFFECT AT M3 CRITICAL POINTS PHONON-POLARITONS AND LATTICE ABSORPTION PHONON-POLARITONS LATTICE ABSORPTION AND REFLECTION MULTIPHONON LATTICE ABSORPTION DYNAMIC EFFECTIVE IONIC CHARGES IN HETEROPOLAR SEMICONDUCTORS ABSORPTION ASSOCIATED WITH EXTRINSIC ELECTRONS FREE-CARRIER ABSORPTION IN DOPED SEMICONDUCTORS ABSORPTION BY CARRIERS BOUND TO SHALLOW DONORS AND ACCEPTORS MODULATION SPECTROSCOPY FREQUENCY MODULATED REFLECTANCE AND THERMOREFLECTANCE PIEZOREFLECTANCE ELECTROREFLECTANCE (FRANZ–KELDYSH EFFECT) PHOTOREFLECTANCE REFLECTANCE DIFFERENCE SPECTROSCOPY ADDENDUM (THIRD EDITION): DIELECTRIC FUNCTION EMISSION SPECTROSCOPIES BAND-TO-BAND TRANSITIONS FREE-TO-BOUND TRANSITIONS DONOR–ACCEPTOR PAIR TRANSITIONS EXCITONS AND BOUND EXCITONS LUMINESCENCE EXCITATION SPECTROSCOPY LIGHT SCATTERING SPECTROSCOPIES MACROSCOPIC THEORY OF INELASTIC LIGHT SCATTERING BY PHONONS RAMAN TENSOR AND SELECTION RULES EXPERIMENTAL DETERMINATION OF RAMAN SPECTRA MICROSCOPIC THEORY OF RAMAN SCATTERING A DETOUR INTO THE WORLD OF FEYNMAN DIAGRAMS BRILLOUIN SCATTERING EXPERIMENTAL DETERMINATION OF BRILLOUIN SPECTRA RESONANT RAMAN AND BRILLOUIN SCATTERING 7 OPTICAL PROPERTIES II PHOTOEMISSION ANGLE-INTEGRATED PHOTOELECTRON SPECTRA OF THE VALENCE BANDS ANGLE-RESOLVED PHOTOELECTRON SPECTRA OF THE VALENCE BANDS CORE LEVELS INVERSE PHOTOEMISSION SURFACE EFFECTS SURFACE STATES AND SURFACE RECONSTRUCTION SURFACE ENERGY BANDS FERMI LEVEL PINNING AND SPACE CHARGE LAYERS QUANTUM CONFINEMENT AND DENSITY OF STATES QUANTUM CONFINEMENT OF ELECTRONS AND HOLES SEMICONDUCTOR MATERIALS FOR QUANTUM WELLS AND SUPERLATTICES CLASSIFICATION OF MULTIPLE QUANTUM WELLS AND SUPERLATTICES CONFINEMENT OF ENERGY LEVELS OF ELECTRONS AND HOLES SOME EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS PHONONS IN SUPERLATTICES PHONONS IN SUPERLATTICES: FOLDED ACOUSTIC AND CONFINED OPTIC MODES FOLDED ACOUSTIC MODES: MACROSCOPIC TREATMENT CONFINED OPTICAL MODES: MACROSCOPIC TREATMENT ELECTROSTATIC EFFECTS IN POLAR CRYSTALS: INTERFACE MODES RAMAN SPECTRA OF PHONONS IN SEMICONDUCTOR SUPERLATTICES RAMAN SCATTERING BY FOLDED ACOUSTIC PHONONS RAMAN SCATTERING BY CONFINED OPTICAL PHONONS RAMAN SCATTERING BY INTERFACE MODES MACROSCOPIC MODELS OF ELECTRON–LO PHONON (FRÖHLICH) INTERACTION IN MULTIPLE QUANTUM WELLS ELECTRICAL TRANSPORT: RESONANT TUNNELING RESONANT TUNNELING THROUGH A DOUBLE-BARRIER QUANTUM WELL I–V CHARACTERISTICS OF RESONANT TUNNELING DEVICES QUANTUM HALL EFFECTS IN TWO-DIMENSIONAL ELECTRON GASES LANDAU THEORY OF DIAMAGNETISM IN A THREE-DIMENSIONAL FREE ELECTRON GAS MAGNETO-CONDUCTIVITY OF A TWO-DIMENSIONAL ELECTRON GAS: FILLING FACTOR 8 PHOTOELECTRON SPECTROSCOPY 9 EFFECT OF QUANTUM CONFINEMENT ON ELECTRONS AND PHONONS IN SEMICONDUCTORS THE EXPERIMENT OF VON KLITZING, PEPPER AND DORDA EXPLANATION OF THE HALL PLATEAUS IN THE INTEGRAL QUANTUM HALL EFFECT CONCLUDING REMARKS IN TEXTBOOKS ON SOLID-STATE PHYSICS, A SEMICONDUCTOR IS USUALLY DE?NED RATHER LOOSELY AS A MATERIAL WITH ELECTRICAL RESISTIVITY LYING IN THE RANGE OF 109 Ø CM 1 ALTERNATIVELY, IT CAN BE DE?NED AS A MATERIAL WHOSE ENERGY GAP (TO BE DE?NED MORE PRECISELY IN CHAP 2) FOR ELECTRONIC EXCITATIONS LIES BETWEEN ZERO AND ABOUT 4 ELECTRON VOLTS (EV) MATERIALS WITH ZERO BANDGAP ARE MET- ALS OR SEMIMETALS, WHILE THOSE WITH AN ENERGY GAP LARGER THAN 3 EV ARE MORE FREQUENTLY KNOWN AS INSULATORS THERE ARE EXCEPTIONS TO THESE DE?NITIONS FOR EXAMPLE, TERMS SUCH AS SEMICONDUCTING DIAMOND (WHOSE ENERGY GAP IS ABOUT 6 EV) AND SEMI-INSULATING GAAS (WITH A 1 5 EV ENERGY GAP) ARE FREQUENTLY USED GAN, WHICH IS RECEIVING A LOT OF ATTENTION AS OPTOELECTRONIC MATERIAL IN THE BLUE REGION, HAS A GAP OF 3 5 EV THE BEST-KNOWN SEMICONDUCTOR IS UNDOUBTEDLY SILICON (SI) HOWEVER, THERE ARE MANY SEMICONDUCTORS BESIDES SILICON IN FACT, MANY MINERALS FOUND IN NA- TURE, SUCH AS ZINC-BLENDE (ZNS) CUPRITE (CU2O) AND GALENA (PBS), TO NAME JUST A FEW, ARE SEMICONDUCTORS INCLUDING THE SEMICONDUCTORS SYNTHESIZED IN LABO- RATORIES, THE FAMILY OF SEMICONDUCTORS FORMS ONE OF THE MOST VERSATILE CLASS OF MATERIALS KNOWN TO MAN SEMICONDUCTORS OCCUR IN MANY DIFFERENT CHEMICAL COMPOSITIONS WITH A LARGE VARIETY OF CRYSTAL STRUCTURES THEY CAN BE ELEMENTAL SEMICONDUCTORS, SUCH AS SI, CARBON IN THE FORM OF C60 OR NANOTUBES AND SELENIUM (SE) OR BINARY COMPOUNDS SUCH AS GALLIUM ARSENIDE (GAAS) MANY ORGANIC COM- POUNDS, E G POLYACETYLENE (CH)N, ARE SEMICONDUCTORS SOME SEMICONDUCTORS EXHIBIT MAGNETIC (CD1XMNXTE) OR FERROELECTRIC (SBSI) BEHAVIOR OTHERS BE- COME SUPERCONDUCTORS WHEN DOPED WITH SUF?CIENT CARRIERS (GETE AND SRTIO3) MANY OF THE RECENTLY DISCOVERED HIGH-TC SUPERCONDUCTORS HAVE NONMETALLIC PHASES WHICH ARE SEMICONDUCTORS FOR EXAMPLE, LA2CUO4 IS A SEMICONDUCTOR (GAP ?2 EV) BUT BECOMES A SUPERCONDUCTOR WHEN ALLOYED WITH SR TO FORM (LA1XSRX)2CUO4 1 Ø CM IS A “HYBRID” SI AND CGS RESISTIVITY UNIT COMMONLY USED IN SCIENCE AND ENGINEER- ING THE SI UNIT FOR RESISTIVITY SHOULD BE Ø M