INFRARED AND MILLIMETER WAVES
CONTENTS CHAPTER CONTEMPORARY MACHINING PROCESSES FOR NEW MATERIALS NEW MATERIALS AND APPROACHES TO THE PRODUCT LIFE CYCLE, REMANUFACTURING, AND REUSE FOAM INJECTION MOLDING TECHNICAL ADVANTAGES OF FOAM MOLDING POLYMER FOAMING AND PROCESSING FOAM INJECTION MOLDING EQUIPMENT GASODYNAMIC DENSIFICATION OF CASTING MATERIALS DIAMOND AND ELECTRICAL DISCHARGE DIAMOND GRINDING ELECTRICAL DISCHARGE MACHINING METHODS ELECTROCHEMICAL MACHINING METHODS ULTRASONIC MACHINING METHODS ELECTRON BEAM MACHINING ION BEAM MACHINING 1 10 LASER MATERIAL PROCESSING 1 10 1 CLASSIFICATION OF LASERS 1 10 2 LASER BEAM MACHINING METHODS 1 10 3 LASER SURFACE TREATMENT 1 10 4 REMANUFACTURING WITH LASER CLADDING TECHNOLOGY 1 10 5 FUTURE DEVELOPMENT OF LASER APPLICATIONS 1 11 PROCESSING WITH PLASMA 1 12 WATERJET MACHINING 1 12 1 WATERJET MACHINING PRINCIPLE AND INFLUENCING FACTORS 1 12 2 MAIN COMPONENTS OF A WATERJET MACHINING SYSTEM 1 12 3 MAIN ADVANTAGES OF AWJ MACHINING 1 12 4 LIMITATIONS AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF AWJ MACHINING 1 13 TRENDS IN JOINING TECHNOLOGIES 1 13 1 REMARKS ON GENERAL TRENDS 1 13 2 PROMISING JOINING TECHNOLOGIES 1 14 METHODS INCREASING MACHINING ACCURACY CONTEMPORARY METHODS OF PROTECTION AND RESTORATION OF COMPONENTS APPLICATION OF ADDITIVE MANUFACTURING METHODS ALONG THE PRODUCT LIFE CYCLE SHORT REVIEW OF AM AND HYBRID METHODS MATERIALS PROCESSED BY AM AM METHODS RELATED TO THE PRODUCT LIFE CYCLE PROTECTIVE AND TECHNOLOGICAL COATINGS FOR HOT WORKING PROCESSES AND HEAT TREATMENT GENERAL REQUIREMENTS STARTING MATERIALS FOR COATINGS COMPOSITION OF COATINGS TEMPORARY PROTECTIVE COATINGS IN MICROMACHINING HIGH TEMPERATURE COATINGS THERMAL SPRAY COATINGS VACUUM PLASMA SPRAYING PROCESSES OF HARD ALLOYS COATINGS TITANIUM NITRIDE NANOCERAMIC MATRIX COMPOSITE COATINGS CHAPTER SMART MACHINING PROCESSES COMPUTER-INTEGRATED MANUFACTURING SMART MANUFACTURING “SMART” TOOLS AND MATERIALS SUPERPLASTICITY AND ITS APPLICATION TO METAL FORMING SEVERE PLASTIC DEFORMATION IN NANOSTRUCTURAL MATERIALS PROCESSING PRODUCT LIFE CYCLE MODELS AND POTENTIAL CULTURAL OR SOCIAL IMPLICATIONS OF REPAIR CONCLUDING REMARKS REFERENCES 1 CONTEMPORARY MACHINING PROCESSES FOR NEW MATERIALS SOME MATERIALS HAVE BEEN USED BY HUMANKIND FOR MILLENNIA, E G , CERAMICS, GLASS, IRON, AND COPPER, WHILE OTHERS EMERGED IN THE SECOND HALF OF THE 20TH CENTURY, SUCH AS POLYMERS, ENGINEERING CERAMICS, AND COMPOSITES (DOBRZANSKI, 2013) THE CON- TINUOUS PROCESS OF SEARCH FOR AND EXPLORATION OF NEW MATERIALS AND METHODS USU- ALLY INTENSIFIES WHEN THE EXISTING METHODS ARE NOT EFFICIENT (KUMAR ET AL , 2018) NOWADAYS, GLOBAL COMPETITION HAS RESULTED IN THE RAPID DEVELOPMENT OF NEW MATE- RIALS, PROCESSES, AND PRODUCTS (VELAYUDHAM, 2007) IN FACT, THE VARIETY OF MATERI- ALS HAS INCREASED TREMENDOUSLY IN THE LAST DECADES; NEW AND MORE SEVERE SERVICE REQUIREMENTS AND DEMAND FOR LOWER COSTS HAVE ARISEN AS WELL (SCHWARTZ, 2010) SOME SOURCES ESTIMATE THAT THE NUMBER OF AVAILABLE ENGINEERING MATERIALS IS CLOSE TO 100,000, AND IT IS EXPECTED THAT NEW MATERIALS WITH CERTAIN PROPERTIES WILL BE PRO- DUCED ON CUSTOMER’S DEMAND (DOBRZANSKI, 2013) THUS, THE TERM “NEW MATERIALS” IS OFTEN ASSOCIATED WITH MATERIALS THAT POSSESS SIGNIFICANTLY DIFFERENT PROPERTIES THAN THE “TRADITIONAL” ONES, E G , REDUCED WEIGHT, IMPROVED STRENGTH, TOUGHNESS, WEAR AND CORROSION RESISTANCE, AND SAFETY FOR OUR HEALTH THE NEW GENERATION OF MATERIALS WITH IMPROVED PROPERTIES POSES PROBLEMS TO MACHINING AND HENCE REQUIRES NEW MANUFAC- TURING PROCESSES AND NEW MACHINING APPROACHES (SREEJITH AND NGOI, 2001) IN THIS CHAPTER, WE DESCRIBE SEVERAL MATERIAL PROCESSING METHODS, STARTING FROM THE FOAM INJECTION MOLDING AND CONCLUDING WITH ACCURACY ISSUES BUT FIRST WE SHOULD DISCUSS THE MAIN CONCEPTS DRIVING TODAY’S INDUSTRY 1 1 NEW MATERIALS AND APPROACHES TO THE PRODUCT LIFE CYCLE, REMANUFACTURING, AND REUSE IT IS NOT EASY TO DEFINE THE TERM “NEW MATERIALS” WHEN CONSULTING SCIENCE DIRECT IN FEBRUARY 2021, 138,112 RESULTS FOR “NEW MATERIALS” WERE FOUND, OUT OF WHICH MORE THAN 14,000 WERE PUBLICATIONS BETWEEN 2020 AND 2021 A PROPOSED CATEGORIZATION SUGGESTS THAT THE DEVELOPMENT OF NEW MATERIALS COVERS THE FOLLOWING: 1 NANO AND MICROFABRICATION METHODS 2 MATERIALS AND SYSTEMS MIMICKING NATURE, SUCH AS BIOMIMETIC MATERIALS AND SMART MATERIALS AND SYSTEMS 3 MATERIALS FOR INFORMATION STORAGE AND TRANSMISSION, USUALLY REFERRED TO AS FUNCTIONAL MATERIALS ?REMANUFACTURING AND ADVANCED MACHINING SCHWARTZ (2010) SUGGESTED THAT THE FOLLOWING MATERIALS CAN BE CONSIDERED NEW: 1 CARBON–CARBON COMPOSITES 2 SHAPE MEMORY ALLOYS 3 NANOSTRUCTURED MATERIALS, ESPECIALLY NANOTUBES, BECAUSE FUNDAMENTAL PHYSICAL, CHEMICAL, AND BIOLOGICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS ARE SURPRISINGLY ALTERED AS THEIR CONSTITUENT GRAINS ARE REDUCED TO A NANOMETER SCALE OWING TO THEIR SIZE, SHAPE, SURFACE CHEMISTRY, AND TOPOLOGY 4 FUNCTIONALLY GRADIENT MATERIALS 5 MATERIALS FOR MICRO-ELECTRO-MECHANICAL SYSTEMS AND FUEL CELLS 6 LIQUID CRYSTAL POLYMERS/INTERPENETRATING NETWORK FOR POLYMERS/INTERPEN- ETRATING PHASE CERAMICS THUS, THE TERM “NEW MATERIALS” CAN BE ASSOCIATED WITH ANY MATERIALS RECENTLY DEVELOPED THAT POSSESS SIGNIFICANTLY DIFFERENT PROPERTIES THAN THE “TRADITIONAL” ONES (SREEJITH AND NGOI, 2001) IN RECENT YEARS, HOWEVER, MORE AND MORE RESEARCH INTO SYNTHESIZING NEW MATERIALS HAS BEEN DEVOTED TO NEW FUNCTIONALITIES, SUCH AS PROP- ERTIES REGULATION, SELF-HEALING, REPROCESSING, SOLID-STATE RECYCLING, AND CONTROLLABLE DEGRADATION (ZHANG ET AL , 2018) THIS INDICATES AN AWARENESS OF THE ENTIRE LIFE CYCLE OF THE PRODUCT IT IS EMPHASIZED THAT WITHOUT A RETHINKING OF MATERIAL UTILIZATION IN THE LINEAR ECONOMY, MANY ELEMENTS VITAL FOR INDUSTRY, SUCH AS GOLD, SILVER, INDIUM, IRIDIUM, OR TUNGSTEN, COULD BE DEPLETED WITHIN THE NEXT 5–50 YEARS (TOLIO ET AL , 2017) THUS, APART FROM THE INTRODUCTION OF NEW MATERIALS, THE CONCEPT OF CIRCULAR ECONOMY (CE) SHOULD BE IMPLEMENTED, WHICH CAN BE PRESENTED IN THE FORM OF A 6R PRACTICAL FRAMEWORK, NAMELY REDUCTION, REPAIR, REUSE, RECOVER, REMANUFACTURING, AND RECYCLING (GHISELLINI AND ULGIATI, 2020) RECYCLING IS AMONG THE LOWEST IN THE HIERARCHY OF EOL RECOVERY STRATEGY AS IT CONSUMES MUCH ENERGY IN MELTING AND REPROCESSING AND LEADS TO MATERIAL DOWNGRADE IN TERMS OF QUALITY AND USABILITY IN THEIR SUBSEQUENT LIFE CYCLES (WAHAB ET AL , 2018) THE VISION OF THE CIRCULAR ECONOMY PARADIGM IS FOCUSED ON FUNDAMENTAL CHANGES IN THE CURRENT LINEAR ECONOMIC APPROACH “TAKE–MAKE–DISPOSE,” WHICH GENERATES MASSIVE WASTE FLOWS IT CAN BE UNDERSTOOD AS AN INDUSTRIAL SYSTEM, RESTORATIVE AND REGENERATIVE BY THE VERY INTENTION AND DESIGN, AIMED AT KEEPING PRODUCTS, COMPO- NENTS, AND MATERIALS AT THEIR HIGHEST UTILITY AND VALUE ALONG THEIR LIFE CYCLE (TOLIO ET AL , 2017) IN OTHER WORDS, CE REPLACES THE PRODUCT “END-OF-LIFE” (EOL) CONCEPT WITH RESTORATION IN ORDER TO ELIMINATE WASTE THROUGH THE SUPERIOR DESIGN OF MATERIALS, PRODUCTS, AND SYSTEMS CIRCULAR ECONOMY MAY REPRESENT A NEW SUSTAINABLE GROWTH PATH AND A BUSINESS OPPORTUNITY FOR THE WORLDWIDE MANUFACTURING INDUSTRY A GROW- ING NUMBER OF THE EOL PRODUCTS AND RESULTING WASTE HAVE MADE ENVIRONMENTAL PRO- TECTION AND RESOURCE CONSERVATION AN ARDUOUS TASK FOR COUNTRIES ACROSS THE WORLD, REQUIRING A SERIES OF GOVERNMENTAL LAWS AND REGULATIONS CONCERNING REMANUFACTURING TO HELP SUPPORT THE DEVELOPMENT OF SUCH INDUSTRIES (CAO ET AL , 2020) A SUSTAINABLE TRANSITION TO CIRCULAR ECONOMY IS EXPECTED TO BRING BENEFITS IN ENVI- RONMENTAL, ECONOMIC, AND SOCIAL TERMS IN ENVIRONMENTAL TERMS, CE PRACTICES HAVE THE POTENTIAL TO BRING 80–90% SAVINGS IN RAW MATERIALS AND ENERGY CONSUMPTION INFRARED AND MILLIMETER WAVES