MICROSCOPY OF CERAMICS AND CEMENTS
CONTENTS 1 INTRODUCTION CATEGORIES OF WASTE AND WASTE GENERATION IN THE MODERN WORLD RADIOACTIVE WASTES FROM NUCLEAR POWER AND DEFENCE OPERATIONS TOXIC AND HAZARDOUS WASTES OTHER SOURCES OF WASTE MATERIAL GENERAL DISPOSAL OPTIONS RADIATION ISSUES WASTE DISPOSAL AND THE OKLO NATURAL NUCLEAR REACTORS NUCLEAR ACCIDENTS AND THE LESSONS LEARNT REFERENCES 2 MATERIALS TOXICITY AND BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS METALS BERYLLIUM, BARIUM AND RADIUM VANADIUM CHROMIUM, MOLYBDENUM AND TUNGSTEN MANGANESE, TECHNETIUM AND RHENIUM PLATINUM-GROUP METALS NICKEL COPPER, SILVER AND GOLD ZINC, CADMIUM AND MERCURY ALUMINIUM AND THALLIUM 2 1 10 TIN AND LEAD 2 1 11 ARSENIC, ANTIMONY AND BISMUTH 2 1 12 SELENIUM, TELLURIUM AND POLONIUM 2 1 13 THORIUM, URANIUM, NEPTUNIUM, PLUTONIUM AND AMERICIUM COMPOUNDS ASBESTOS 3 GLASS AND CERAMIC BASED SYSTEMS AND GENERAL PROCESSING METHODS GLASS FORMATION GLASS-FORMING ABILITY THERMAL STABILITY TYPES OF GLASS SILICATE AND BOROSILICATE GLASSES PHOSPHATE GLASSES RARE EARTH OXIDE GLASSES ALTERNATIVE GLASSES CERAMICS GLASS-CERAMICS GLASS AND CERAMIC BASED COMPOSITE SYSTEMS PROCESSING OF GLASS AND CERAMIC MATERIALS MELTING AND VITRI? CATION POWDER PROCESSING AND SINTERING HOT PRESSING SOL-GEL PROCESSING SELF-PROPAGATING HIGH TEMPERATURE SYNTHESIS MICROWAVE PROCESSING 4 MATERIALS CHARACTERIZATION CHEMICAL ANALYSIS THERMAL ANALYSIS STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS OPTICAL AND ELECTRON MICROSCOPY ENERGY DISPERSIVE SPECTROSCOPY X-RAY AND NEUTRON DIFFRACTION INFRA-RED AND RAMAN SPECTROSCOPY MÖSSBAUER SPECTROSCOPY NUCLEAR MAGNETIC RESONANCE MECHANICAL PROPERTIES FRACTURE MECHANICS FLEXURAL STRENGTH OF MATERIALS LIFETIME BEHAVIOUR CHEMICAL DURABILITY AND STANDARDIZED TESTS RADIATION STABILITY OTHER PROPERTIES RELEVANT TO WASTEFORMS USE OF NONRADIOACTIVE SURROGATES 5 RADIOACTIVE WASTES SOURCES AND WASTE STREAM COMPOSITIONS NUCLEAR REACTOR SPENT FUEL WASTES DEFENCE WASTES SURPLUS MATERIALS SPECIAL OR UNUSUAL CATEGORIES OF RADIOACTIVE WASTE GENERAL IMMOBILIZATION OPTIONS 6 IMMOBILIZATION BY VITRI? CATION VITRI? CATION HISTORY AND THE ADVANCEMENT OF MELTER DESIGN POT PROCESSES CONTINUOUS MELTING BY INDUCTION FURNACE JOULE-HEATED CERAMIC MELTERS COLD CRUCIBLE INDUCTION MELTERS PLASMA ARC/TORCH MELTERS IN SITU MELTING BULK VITRI? CATION ALTERNATIVE MELTING TECHNIQUES 6 1 10 VITRI? CATION INCIDENTS AND THE LESSONS THAT HAVE BEEN LEARNT DIF? CULT WASTE CONSTITUENTS MOLYBDENUM AND CAESIUM PLATINUM GROUP METALS TECHNETIUM CHROMIUM, NICKEL AND IRON HALIDES SULPHATES PHOSPHATES EFFECT OF SPECI? C BATCH ADDITIVES ON MELTING PERFORMANCE TYPES OF GLASS AND CANDIDATE GLASS REQUIREMENTS SILICATE AND BOROSILICATE GLASS ALTERNATIVE METHODS FOR PRODUCING GLASSY WASTEFORMS SINTERED AND POROUS GLASS HOT-PRESSED GLASS MICROWAVE SINTERING SELF-SUSTAINING VITRI? CATION PLASMA TORCH INCINERATION AND VITRI? CATION 7 IMMOBILIZATION OF RADIOACTIVE MATERIALS AS A CERAMIC WASTEFORM TITANATE AND ZIRCONATE CERAMICS PHOSPHATE CERAMICS ALUMINOSILICATE CERAMICS ALTERNATIVE CERAMICS CEMENT BASED SYSTEMS 8 IMMOBILIZATION OF RADIOACTIVE MATERIALS AS A GLASS-CERAMIC WASTEFORM BARIUM ALUMINOSILICATE GLASS-CERAMICS BARIUM TITANIUM SILICATE GLASS-CERAMICS CALCIUM MAGNESIUM SILICATE GLASS-CERAMICS CALCIUM TITANIUM SILICATE GLASS-CERAMICS BASALTIC GLASS-CERAMICS ZIRCONOLITE BASED GLASS-CERAMICS ALTERNATIVE SILICATE BASED GLASS-CERAMICS PHOSPHATE BASED GLASS-CERAMICS 9 NOVEL HOSTS FOR THE IMMOBILIZATION OF SPECIAL OR UNUSUAL CATEGORIES OF RADIOACTIVE WASTES SILICATE GLASSES ALTERNATIVE VITRI? CATION ROUTES CERAMIC-BASED HOSTS GLASS-ENCAPSULATED COMPOSITE AND HYBRID SYSTEMS OXYNITRIDE GLASSES PLUTONIUM DISPOSITION 10 PROPERTIES OF RADIOACTIVE WASTEFORMS CHEMICAL DURABILITY 10 2 1 GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF GLASS DURABILITY 10 2 2 DURABILITY OF SILICATE BASED GLASSES IN WATER 10 2 3 DURABILITY OF SILICATE BASED GLASSES IN GROUNDWATERS AND REPOSITORY ENVIRONMENTS 10 2 4 DURABILITY OF PHOSPHATE BASED GLASSES 10 2 5 LESSONS TO BE LEARNT FROM ARCHAEOLOGICAL GLASSES 10 2 6 CERAMIC DURABILITY 10 2 7 GLASS-CERAMIC DURABILITY 10 2 8 DURABILITY OF GLASS-ENCAPSULATED CERAMIC HYBRID WASTEFORMS 10 2 9 IN? UENCE OF COLLOIDS 10 3 1 GLASS STABILITY 10 3 2 CERAMIC STABILITY 10 3 3 GLASS-ENCAPSULATED CERAMIC HYBRID STABILITY NATURAL ANALOGUES ALTERNATIVE PROPERTIES 11 STRUCTURAL AND MODELLING STUDIES STRUCTURAL STUDIES 11 1 1 VITREOUS WASTEFORMS 11 1 2 CERAMIC WASTEFORMS MODELLING STUDIES 11 2 1 MODELLING TECHNIQUES 11 2 2 VITREOUS WASTEFORMS 11 2 3 CERAMIC WASTEFORMS 12 SOURCES AND COMPOSITIONS OF NONRADIOACTIVE TOXIC AND HAZARDOUS WASTES, AND COMMON DISPOSAL ROUTES INCINERATOR WASTES SEWAGE AND DREDGING SLUDGES ZINC HYDROMETALLURGICAL AND RED MUD WASTES BLAST FURNACE SLAGS AND ELECTRIC ARC FURNACE DUSTS ALTERNATIVE METALLURGICAL WASTES AND SLAGS METAL FINISHING AND PLATING WASTES COAL ASH AND FLY ASH FROM THERMAL POWER STATIONS CEMENT DUST AND CLAY-RE? NING WASTES TANNERY INDUSTRY WASTES 12 10 ASBESTOS 12 11 MEDICAL WASTES 12 12 ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC WASTES 12 13 ALTERNATIVE WASTES 13 VITRI? CATION OF NONRADIOACTIVE TOXIC AND HAZARDOUS WASTES CEMENT DUST, CLAY-RE? NING AND TANNERY INDUSTRY WASTES 13 10 MEDICAL WASTE 13 11 ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC WASTES 13 12 ALTERNATIVE WASTES 13 13 MIXED NONRADIOACTIVE HAZARDOUS WASTES 13 14 GLASS-CERAMICS FOR NONRADIOACTIVE WASTE IMMOBILIZATION 13 15 COMMERCIAL HAZARDOUS WASTE VITRI? CATION FACILITIES 14 ALTERNATIVE TREATMENT PROCESSES, AND CHARACTERIZATION, PROPERTIES AND APPLICATIONS OF NONRADIOACTIVE WASTEFORMS ALTERNATIVES TO VITRI? CATION USE OF ALTERNATIVE WASTE SOURCES TO PREPARE NEW MATERIALS USE OF WASTE GLASS TO PREPARE NEW MATERIALS CHARACTERIZATION, PROPERTIES AND APPLICATIONS OF NONRADIOACTIVE WASTEFORMS 14 4 1 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES 14 4 2 CHEMICAL DURABILITY 14 4 3 STRUCTURAL AND MODELLING STUDIES 14 4 4 USE OF LESS HAZARDOUS OR NONTOXIC SURROGATES APPLICATIONS 15 IN? UENCE OF ORGANIC, MICRO-ORGANISM AND MICROBIAL ACTIVITY ON WASTEFORM INTEGRITY MICRO-ORGANISM ACTIVITY AND TRANSPORT MECHANISMS REPOSITORY ENVIRONMENTS REPOSITORY ANALOGUES WASTEFORMS 16 CONCLUDING REMARKS, COMPARISONS BETWEEN RADIOACTIVE AND NONRADIOACTIVE WASTE IMMOBILIZATION, AND OUTLOOK FOR THE FUTURE MIXED RADIOACTIVE AND NONRADIOACTIVE WASTES SYSTEM AND WASTEFORM COMPARISONS 16 2 1 TREATMENT FACILITIES 16 2 2 WASTEFORMS IMMEDIATE AND SHORT-TERM FUTURE OUTLOOK MEDIUM AND LONGER TERM FUTURE OUTLOOK 16 4 1 GENERATION IV NUCLEAR ENERGY SYSTEMS 16 4 2 ELEMENT PARTITIONING AND TRANSMUTATION CHOOSING A WASTEFORM 16 5 1 WASTEFORMS STUDIED IN THE PAST AND SHORT-TERM FUTURE DIRECTION 16 5 2 ALTERNATIVE WASTEFORMS AND LONGER TERM FUTURE DIRECTION WASTEFORM CHARACTERIZATION STANDARDS, REGULATORY REQUIREMENTS, AND PERFORMANCE ASSESSMENTS OVERALL CONCLUSIONS