AN INTRODUCTION TO OPTICAL STELLAR INTERFEROMETRY
CONTENTS INTRODUCTION HISTORICAL INTRODUCTION ABOUT THIS BOOK REFERENCES BASIC CONCEPTS: A QUALITATIVE INTRODUCTION A QUALITATIVE INTRODUCTION TO THE BASIC CONCEPTS AND IDEAS YOUNG’S EXPERIMENT (1801–3) USING YOUNG’S SLITS TO MEASURE THE SIZE OF A LIGHT SOURCE SOME BASIC WAVE CONCEPTS PLANE WAVES HUYGENS’ PRINCIPLE SUPERPOSITION ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES AND PHOTONS INTERFERENCE, DIFFRACTION AND COHERENCE INTERFERENCE AND DIFFRACTION INTERFERENCE AND INTERFEROMETERS DIFFRACTION USING THE SCALAR WAVE APPROXIMATION FRAUNHOFER DIFFRACTION PATTERNS OF SOME SIMPLE APERTURES THE POINT SPREAD FUNCTION THE OPTICAL TRANSFER FUNCTION COHERENT LIGHT THE EFFECT OF UNCERTAINTIES IN THE FREQUENCY AND WAVE VECTOR COHERENT LIGHT AND ITS IMPORTANCE TO INTERFEROMETRY PARTIAL COHERENCE SPATIAL COHERENCE TEMPORAL COHERENCE A QUANTITATIVE DISCUSSION OF COHERENCE COHERENCE FUNCTION THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE COHERENCE FUNCTION AND FRINGE VISIBILITY VAN CITTERT–ZERNIKE THEOREM FLUCTUATIONS IN LIGHT WAVES A STATISTICAL MODEL FOR QUASIMONOCHROMATIC LIGHT THE SECOND-ORDER COHERENCE FUNCTION PHOTON NOISE PHOTODETECTORS APERTURE SYNTHESIS THE OPTICS OF APERTURE SYNTHESIS SAMPLING THE (U, V) PLANE THE OPTIMAL GEOMETRY OF MULTIPLE TELESCOPE ARRANGEMENTS FROM DATA TO IMAGE: THE PHASE PROBLEM PHASE CLOSURE IMAGE RESTORATION AND THE CROWDING LIMITATION ALGORITHMIC IMAGE RESTORATION METHODS THE CROWDING LIMITATION SIGNAL DETECTION FOR APERTURE SYNTHESIS WAVE MIXING AND HETERODYNE RECORDING A QUANTUM INTERPRETATION OF APERTURE SYNTHESIS A LECTURE DEMONSTRATION OF APERTURE SYNTHESIS OPTICAL EFFECTS OF THE ATMOSPHERE A QUALITATIVE DESCRIPTION OF OPTICAL EFFECTS OF THE ATMOSPHERE QUANTITATIVE MEASURES OF THE ATMOSPHERIC ABERRATIONS KOLMOGOROV’S (1941) DESCRIPTION OF TURBULENCE PARAMETERS DESCRIBING THE OPTICAL EFFECTS OF TURBULENCE: CORRELATION AND STRUCTURE FUNCTIONS, B(R) AND D(R) PHASE ?UCTUATIONS IN A WAVE PROPAGATING THROUGH THE ATMOSPHERE FRIED’S PARAMETER R0 DESCRIBES THE SIZE OF THE ATMOSPHERIC CORRELATION REGION CORRELATION BETWEEN PHASE ?UCTUATIONS IN WAVES WITH DIFFERENT ANGLES OF INCIDENCE: THE ISOPLANATIC PATCH TEMPORAL ?UCTUATIONS THE WIND-DRIVEN“FROZEN TURBULENCE” HYPOTHESIS FREQUENCY SPECTRUM OF ?UCTUATIONS INTENSITY ?UCTUATIONS: TWINKLING DEPENDENCE ON HEIGHT DEPENDENCE OF ATMOSPHERIC EFFECTS ON THE WAVELENGTH ADAPTIVE OPTICS MEASURING THE WAVEFRONT DISTORTION DEFORMABLE MIRRORS TIP–TILT CORRECTION GUIDE STARS SHORT EXPOSURE IMAGES: SPECKLE PATTERNS A MODEL FOR A SPECKLE IMAGE SINGLE-APERTURE TECHNIQUES MASKING THE APERTURE OF A LARGE TELESCOPE USING THE WHOLE APERTURE: SPECKLE INTERFEROMETRY THEORY OF SPECKLE INTERFEROMETRY EXPERIMENTAL SPECKLE INTERFEROMETRY SOME EARLY RESULTS OF SPECKLE INTERFEROMETRY SPECKLE IMAGING THE KNOX–THOMPSON ALGORITHM SPECKLE MASKING, OR TRIPLE CORRELATION SPECTRAL SPECKLE MASKING INTENSITY INTERFEROMETRY INTENSITY ?UCTUATIONS AND THE SECOND-ORDER COHERENCE FUNCTION THE CLASSICAL WAVE INTERPRETATION THE QUANTUM INTERPRETATION ESTIMATING THE SENSITIVITY OF ?UCTUATION CORRELATIONS THE NARRABRI INTENSITY INTERFEROMETER THE ELECTRONIC CORRELATOR DATA ANALYSIS DOUBLE STARS STELLAR DIAMETERS LIMB DARKENING ASTRONOMICAL RESULTS RETRIEVING THE PHASE CONCLUSION AMPLITUDE INTERFEROMETRY: TECHNIQUES AND INSTRUMENTS THE MICHELSON STELLAR INTERFEROMETER THE NARRABRI INTENSITY INTERFEROMETER APERTURE MASKING WHAT DO WE DEMAND OF AN INTERFEROMETER? THE COMPONENTS OF MODERN AMPLITUDE INTERFEROMETERS SUBAPERTURES AND TELESCOPES BEAM LINES AND THEIR DISPERSION CORRECTION CORRECTION OF ANGULAR DISPERSION PATH-LENGTH EQUALIZERS OR DELAY LINES BEAM-REDUCING OPTICS BEAM COMBINERS SEMIRE?ECTIVE BEAM-COMBINERS OPTICAL ?BER AND INTEGRATED OPTICAL BEAM-COMBINERS STAR TRACKING AND TIP–TILT CORRECTION 8 3 10 FRINGE DISPERSION AND TRACKING 8 3 11 ESTIMATING THE FRINGE PARAMETERS 8 3 12 TECHNIQUES FOR MEASURING IN THE PHOTON-STARVED REGION MODERN INTERFEROMETERS WITH TWO SUBAPERTURES HETERODYNE INTERFEROMETERS INTERF´EROM`ETRE `A 2 T´ELESCOPES (I2T) GRAND INTERF´EROM`ETRE `A DEUX T´ELESCOPES (GI2T) THE MARK III INTERFEROMETER SYDNEY UNIVERSITY STELLAR INTERFEROMETER (SUSI) THE LARGE BINOCULAR TELESCOPE (LBT) THE MIKATA OPTICAL AND INFRARED ARRAY (MIRA-I 2) PALOMAR TESTBED INTERFEROMETER (PTI) KECK INTERFEROMETER INTERFEROMETERS WITH MORE THAN TWO SUBAPERTURES THE CAMBRIDGE OPTICAL APERTURE SYNTHESIS TELESCOPE (COAST) CENTER FOR HIGH ANGULAR RESOLUTION ASTRONOMY (CHARA) INFRARED OPTICAL TELESCOPE ARRAY (IOTA) NAVY PROTOTYPE OPTICAL INTERFEROMETER (NPOI) THE BERKELEY INFRARED SPATIAL INTERFEROMETER (ISI) VERY LARGE TELESCOPE INTERFEROMETER (VLTI) THE HYPERTELESCOPE IMAGING WITH VERY HIGH RESOLUTION USING MULTIMIRROR TELESCOPES THE PHYSICAL OPTICS OF PUPIL DENSI?CATION A RANDOM ARRAY OF APERTURES A PERIODIC ARRAY OF APERTURES THE ?ELD OF VIEW OF A HYPERTELESCOPE AND THE CROWDING LIMITATION HYPERTELESCOPE ARCHITECTURES MICHELSON’S STELLAR INTERFEROMETER AS A HYPERTELESCOPE, AND MULTI-APERTURE EXTENSIONS HYPERTELESCOPE VERSIONS OF MULTITELESCOPE INTERFEROMETERS CARLINA HYPERTELESCOPES A ?BER-OPTICAL VERSION OF THE HYPERTELESCOPE EXPERIMENTS ON A HYPERTELESCOPE SYSTEM 10 NULLING AND CORONAGRAPHY 10 1 SEARCHING FOR EXTRASOLAR PLANETS AND LIFE 10 2 PLANET DETECTION METHODS 10 2 1 THE RELATIVE LUMINOSITIES OF A STAR AND PLANET 10 2 2 REQUIREMENTS FOR IMAGING PLANET SURFACE FEATURES 10 3 APODIZATION 10 3 1 APODIZATION USING BINARY MASKS 10 3 2 APODIZATION USING PHASE MASKS 10 4 NULLING METHODS IN INTERFEROMETERS 10 4 1 BRACEWELL’S SINGLE-PIXEL NULLING IN NONIMAGING INTERFEROMETERS 10 4 2 BRACEWELL NULLING IN IMAGING INTERFEROMETERS 10 4 3 ACHROMATIC NULLING IN BRACEWELL INTERFEROMETERS 10 4 4 STARLIGHT LEAKAGE IN NULLING INTERFEROMETERS 10 5 IMAGING CORONAGRAPHY 10 5 1 THE LYOT CORONAGRAPH IN ITS ORIGINAL AND STELLAR VERSIONS 10 5 2 THE RODDIER–RODDIER PHASE-DOT CORONAGRAPH 10 5 3 FOUR-QUADRANT PHASE-MASK AND PHASE-SPIRAL CORONAGRAPHS 10 5 4 THE ACHROMATIC INTERFERENCE CORONAGRAPH 10 5 5 ELEMENTARY MODELING OF MASK CORONAGRAPHS 10 5 6 MIRROR BUMPINESS TOLERANCE CALCULATED WITH MAR´ECHAL’S EQUATION 10 6 HIGH CONTRAST CORONAGRAPHY AND APODIZATION 10 6 1 ADAPTIVE COHERENT CORRECTION OF MIRROR BUMPINESS 10 6 2 ADAPTIVE HOLOGRAM WITHIN THE CORONAGRAPH 10 6 3 INCOHERENT CLEANING OF RECORDED IMAGES 10 6 4 COMPARISON OF COHERENT AND INCOHERENT CLEANING 11 A SAMPLING OF INTERFEROMETRIC SCIENCE 11 1 INTERFEROMETRIC SCIENCE 11 2 STELLAR MEASUREMENTS AND IMAGING 11 2 1 STELLAR DIAMETERS AND LIMB DARKENING 11 2 2 STAR-SPOTS, HOT SPOTS 11 2 3 PULSATING STARS 11 2 4 MIRAS 11 2 5 YOUNG STELLAR OBJECT DISKS AND JETS 11 2 6 DUST SHELLS, WOLF–RAYETS 11 2 7 BINARY STARS 11 3 GALACTIC AND EXTRAGALACTIC SOURCES 11 3 1 SN1987A 11 3 2 R136A 11 3 3 THE GALACTIC CENTER 11 3 4 ASTROMETRY 11 4 SOLAR SYSTEM 11 4 1 THE GALILEAN SATELLITES 11 4 2 ASTEROID IMAGING 11 4 3 PLUTO–CHARON 11 5 BROWN DWARFS 11 6 SOLAR FEATURE IMAGING AND DYNAMICS MEASUREMENTS 12 FUTURE GROUND AND SPACE PROJECTS 12 1 FUTURE GROUND-BASED PROJECTS 12 1 1 NEW GROUND-BASED LONG-BASELINE INTERFEROMETERS 12 1 2 THE OPTICAL VERY LARGE ARRAY (OVLA) 12 1 3 TOWARD LARGE CARLINA HYPERTELESCOPES 12 1 4 COMPARISON OF OVLA AND CARLINA CONCEPTS 12 1 5 COMPARING COMPACT AND EXPLODED ELTS 12 1 6 COUPLING TELESCOPES THROUGH ?BERS: THE OHANA PROJECT AT MAUNA KEA 12 2 FUTURE SPACE PROJECTS 12 2 1 FLOTILLAS OF MIRRORS 12 2 2 DARWIN 12 2 3 TERRESTRIAL PLANET ?NDER (TPF) 12 2 4 SPACE INTERFEROMETRY MISSION (SIM) 12 2 5 THE EXO-EARTH IMAGER (EEI) 12 3 SIMULATED EXO-EARTH-IMAGER IMAGES 12 3 1 SOME SPECULATIONS ON IDENTIFYING LIFE FROM COLORED PATCHES 12 4 EXTREME BASELINES FOR A NEUTRON STAR IMAGER