PHYSICS OF LAKES
1 TRANSPORT OF POLLUTANTS 1 11 Introduction, 1 12 Advection–Diffusion Equation with Reaction, 2 13 Steady-State Mixing in Estuaries, 4 131 Determination of Diffusivity D from Salinity Measurements, 5 132 Pollutant Prediction for an Estuary with Uniform Discharge, 5 133 Salinity in an Infinite Estuary with a Large Freshwater Discharge, 8 134 Conservative Pollutant Prediction for an Infinite Estuary with a Large Freshwater Discharge, 9 14 Time-Dependent Mixing in Rivers and Soil Systems, 10 15 Vertical Mixing, 14 151 The Radon Method, 16 152 The Tritium–helium-3 Method, 17 153 Evaluation of Mixing Based on Density Gradients, 19 16 Hydrodynamic Models, 20 17 Groundwater Plumes, 22 18 Sediment Mixing, 23 References, 25 2 SEDIMENTATION PROCESSES 28 21 Introduction, 28 22 210Pb Dating of Sediments, 29 221 Measurement of 210Pb Activity, 30 222 210Pb Activity Profiles, 33 23 137Cs and 239+240Pu Dating of Sediments, 38 24 Dated Records of Metals and Organic Pollutants, 42 25 Deconvolution of Sedimentary Records, 49 26 Chemical and Biological Degradation, 55 27 Sediments as a Source of Pollutants, 56 271 Phosphorus, 57 272 Metals, 57 273 Acid-volatile Sulfides, 58 274 Organics, 59 References, 60 3 ATMOSPHERIC INTERACTIONS 65 31 Introduction, 65 32 Atmospheric Deposition Processes, 66 321 Gaseous vs Particulate Chemicals in the Atmosphere, 66 322 Dry Deposition with Aerosols, 68 323 Wet Deposition, 75 324 Gas Exchange, 78 33 Deposition and Gas Exchange of Organic Contaminants, 84 34 Marine and Freshwater Microlayers, 87 35 Case Study: Emission of VOCs from Wastewater Treatment Plants, 89 36 The Fugacity Model, 93 361 Fugacity Definitions and Basic Equations, 94 362 Levels of Complexity, 101 363 Example Calculations – Chlorobenzene, 103 References, 108 4 WATER CHEMISTRY 113 41 Introduction, 113 42 Carbonate and Alkalinity, 115 421 Dissolved CO2 and Carbonate Speciation in Water, 115 422 Solving Equilibrium pH, 117 423 Alkalinity, 120 424 Buffer Index, 124 43 Sulfur Chemistry, 127 431 Sulfur Redox Reactions in Water, 128 432 Sulfur in Sediment, 132 433 Acid Rain, 133 44 Impact of Global Warming on Natural Waters, 135 References, 136 5 NUTRIENTS 138 51 Introduction, 138 52 Input of Nutrients and Acidity, 140 53 Eutrophication, 143 531 Eutrophication Control, 148 532 Harmful Algal Blooms, 149 533 Cladophora, 155 54 Nitrogen, 156 541 The Nitrogen Cycle, 156 542 Nitrification and Denitrification, 159 543 N Removal, 166 55 Phosphorus, 169 551 The Phosphorus Cycle, 169 552 P Removal, 170 553 Case Study: Phosphorus from Wastewater Treatment, Stormwater, and Rivers in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, 172 56 Vitamins and Trace Metals, 173 References, 180 6 METALS 185 61 Introduction, 185 62 Trends, Measurement, and Toxicity, 186 63 Major Sources and Reactions of Metals in Water, 193 631 Atmospheric Deposition of Metals, 193 632 Hydration, Hydrolysis, and Complex Formation, 196 633 Dissolution of Metals from Minerals, 201 64 Behavior of Selected Metals in Water, 203 641 Mercury, 203 642 Zinc and Cadmium, 204 643 Arsenic, 207 65 Zero-Valent Iron in Remediation of Contaminated Water, 209 651 Dechlorination of Chlorinated Hydrocarbons, 209 652 Reduction of Uranium Carbonate, Chromate, and Arsenate, 214 References, 215 7 ORGANIC POLLUTANTS 220 71 Introduction, 220 72 Important Organic Pollutant Groups, 221 721 Petrochemicals and Industrial Solvents, 221 722 Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs), 223 723 Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs), 223 724 Polyhalogenated Dibenzo-p-Dioxins and Dibenzofurans (PXDD/Fs), 226 725 Polybrominated Diphenyl Ethers (PBDEs) and other Flame Retardants, 226 726 Organochlorine Pesticides (OCPs), 232 727 Other Pesticides, 236 728 Perfluorinated Compounds (PFCs), 239 729 Pharmaceuticals and Personal Care Products (PPCPs) and other Endocrine Disrupting Compounds (EDCs), 240 73 Descriptors of Organic Molecules, 243 74 Basic Physicochemical Properties, 245 741 Vapor Pressure, 246 742 Aqueous Solubility, 247 743 Henry’s Law Constant, 248 744 Octanol–Water Partition Coefficient, 248 745 Air–Octanol Partition Coefficient, 249 75 Distribution of Organic Chemicals in Aquatic Environment, 249 751 Air–Water, 250 752 Water–Sediment, 250 753 Water–Biota and Sediment–Biota, 251 76 Transformations in Water, 252 761 Hydrolysis, 253 762 Photochemical Degradation, 255 763 Biological Degradation, 257 764 Case Study: Transformation of PBDEs in the Environment, 259 References, 261 8 PATHOGENS 268 81 Introduction, 268 82 Bacteria, 271 83 Protozoa, 272 831 Cryptosporidium, 273 84 Molecular Techniques for Detection of Pathogens, 276 841 Water, 276 842 Biosolids, 277 85 Pathogen Indicator Organisms and Surrogates, 277 851 Bacillus Subtilis, 280 852 E Coli and Fecal Coliforms, 280 86 Bacterial Contamination of Recreational Waters, 281 861 Modeling, 283 862 Beaches, 286 863 Recreational Pools, 287 87 Pathogen Removal in Water and Wastewater Treatment, 288 871 Water, 288 872 Wastewater and Solid Waste, 289 873 Inactivation Kinetics, 290 References, 295 9 TRACERS 298 91 Introduction, 298 92 Natural vs Artificial Tracers, 299 93 Radioisotopes, 300 94 Stable Isotopes, 301 95 Applications of Tracer Technology, 305 951 Stable Isotope Tracers, 305 952 N and O Stable Isotopic Compositions of Nitrate Sources, 309 953 Other Physical and Chemical Tracers, 310 954 Molecular-Based Biological Tracers, 314 96 Chemical Mass Balance Modeling, 315 961 CMB Model for PAHs in Kinnickinnic River, Wisconsin, 316 97 Factor Analysis, 320 971 Non-negative Constraints Matrix Factorization, 322 972 Positive Matrix Factorization, 331 973 Unmix, 335 References, 341 10 ECOTOXICOLOGY 347 101 Introduction, 347 102 Bioassays, 349 1021 Fish, 350 1022 Algae, 350 1023 Daphnia, 351 103 Molecular Biology Tools, 353 1031 Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR), 353 1032 Fluorescent in Situ Hybridization (FISH), 354 1033 Gene Expression, 354 1034 Biomarkers, 355 104 Human Health, 357 1041 Fisheries Advisories, 357 1042 Mercury, 358 1043 Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs), 358 105 Endocrine-Disrupting Chemicals, 359 106 Types of Toxicity, 360 1061 Disinfection Byproducts, 361 1062 Detoxification and Degradation, 361 1063 Antibiotics, 362 1064 Nanomaterials, 363 107 Models and Toxicity Tests, 364 1071 Dose–Response Models for Single Toxicants, 364 1072 Dose–Response Models for Multiple Toxicants, 369 1073 Pulsed Toxicity Tests, 374 1074 Chronic Toxicity Tests, 375 108 Quality Criteria, 376 1081 Sediment Quality Criteria, 376 1082 Water Quality Criteria, 381 1083 Total Maximum Daily Loads, 381 References, 383 11 AMBIENT WATER QUALITY CRITERIA 389 111 Introduction, 389 112 A Primer on Ambient Water Quality Regulations, 390 113 Current US Water Quality Criteria, 391 1131 Aquatic Life Criteria, 402 1132 Human Health Criteria, 403 1133 Organoleptic Effects, 404 114 Water Quality Databases, 404 APPENDIX 11A Footnote for Table 111, 405 APPENDIX 11B Footnote for Table 112, 408 APPENDIX 11C Additional Notes, 410 References, 412