PHYSICS: THE ELEMENTS
CONTENTS 1 FIRST, THERE WAS CLASSICAL PHYSICS 11 INTRODUCTION 12 PHYSICS AND CLASSICAL PHYSICS 13 THE CLASSICAL WORLD OF PARTICLES 14 PHYSICAL QUANTITIES 15 NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION 16 ROTATIONAL MOTION 17 SUPERPOSITION AND COLLISION OF PARTICLES 171 SUPERPOSITION 172 COLLISION AND SCATTERING 18 CLASSICAL WORLD OF WAVES 181 PERIODIC WAVES 182 DE? NING WAVE CHARACTERISTICS 19 RE? ECTION, REFRACTION, AND SCATTERING 110 DIFFRACTION AND INTERFERENCE 1101 DIFFRACTION 1102 INTERFERENCE 111 EQUATION OF WAVE MOTION 112 LIGHT: PARTICLE OR WAVE? 113 UNDERSTANDING ELECTRICITY 114 UNDERSTANDING MAGNETISM 1141 MAGNETIC FIELD 1142 MAGNETIC FLUX 115 UNDERSTANDING ELECTROMAGNETISM 1151 TYPES OF ELECTROMAGNETIC AND OTHER WAVES 1152 ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM 116 MAXWELL’S EQUATIONS 117 CON? NEMENT, STANDING WAVES, AND WAVEGROUPS 1171 CON? NEMENT 1172 STANDING WAVES 1173 WAVEGROUPS 118 PARTICLES AND WAVES: THE BIG PICTURE 119 THE FOUR FUNDAMENTAL FORCES OF NATURE 1191 GRAVITATIONAL FORCE 1192 ELECTROMAGNETIC FORCE 1193 WEAK AND STRONG NUCLEAR FORCES 1194 FOUR FUNDAMENTAL FORCES: THE BIG PICTURE 120 UNI? CATION: A SECRET TO SCIENTI? C AND TECHNOLOGICAL REVOLUTIONS 121 SPECIAL THEORY OF RELATIVITY 122 CLASSICAL APPROACH 1221 SEPARATION OF PARTICLES AND WAVES: EITHER IT IS A PARTICLE OR A WAVE 1222 EITHER IT IS HERE OR THERE: THE CERTAINTY 1223 THE WORLD IS CONTINUOUS: ANY VALUE WITHIN A RANGE IS POSSIBLE 1224 COMMON GROUNDS AMONG PARTICLES AND WAVES: A RED FLAG 123 SUMMARY 124 ADDITIONAL PROBLEMS 2 PARTICLE BEHAVIOR OF WAVES 21 INTRODUCTION 22 THE NATURE OF LIGHT: THE BIG PICTURE 23 BLACK-BODY RADIATION 231 THE CLASSICAL COLLAPSE 232 THE QUANTUM RESCUE 24 THE PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT 241 THE PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT: THE EXPERIMENT 242 THE CLASSICAL COLLAPSE 243 THE QUANTUM RESCUE 25 X-RAY DIFFRACTION 26 THE COMPTON EFFECT 27 LIVING IN THE QUANTUM WORLD 271 USING BLACK-BODY RADIATION 272 USING THE PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT 273 USING COMPTON SCATTERING 28 SUMMARY 29 ADDITIONAL PROBLEMS 3 WAVE BEHAVIOR OF PARTICLES 31 INTRODUCTION 32 PARTICLES AND WAVES: THE BIG PICTURE 33 THE DE BROGLIE HYPOTHESIS 34 MEASURING THE WAVELENGTH OF ELECTRONS 35 QUANTUM CON? NEMENT 36 THE UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE 361 UNDERSTANDING PARTICLE WAVES 362 UNDERSTANDING THE UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE 363 ANOTHER FORM OF THE UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE 37 WAVE-PARTICLE DUALITY OF NATURE 38 LIVING IN THE QUANTUM WORLD 381 SEEING THE NANOWORLD WITH ELECTRON WAVES 382 SEEING NANOSTRUCTURES WITH THE DIFFRACTION OF PARTICLE WAVES 383 USING ATOMIC WAVES TO NAVIGATE YOUR WAY 39 SUMMARY 310 ADDITIONAL PROBLEMS 4 ANATOMY OF AN ATOM 41 INTRODUCTION 42 QUANTUM MECHANICS OF AN ATOM: THE BIG PICTURE 43 DALTON’S ATOMIC THEORY 44 THE STRUCTURE OF AN ATOM 45 THE CLASSICAL COLLAPSE OF AN ATOM 46 THE QUANTUM RESCUE 461 BOHR’S MODEL 462 THE BOHR MODEL MEETS THE SPECTRAL SERIES 463 LIMITATIONS OF THE BOHR MODEL 47 QUANTUM MECHANICS OF AN ATOMIC STRUCTURE 471 PRINCIPLE ENERGY LEVELS 472 SUBLEVELS 473 ELECTRON ORBITALS 48 CLASSICAL PHYSICS OR QUANTUM PHYSICS: WHICH ONE IS THE TRUE PHYSICS? 49 LIVING IN THE QUANTUM WORLD 491 FREE ELECTRON MODEL FOR PI BONDING 410 SUMMARY 411 ADDITIONAL PROBLEMS 5 PRINCIPLES AND FORMALISM OF QUANTUM MECHANICS 51 INTRODUCTION 52 HERE COMES QUANTUM MECHANICS 53 WAVE FUNCTION: THE BASIC BUILDING BLOCK OF QUANTUM MECHANICS 531 IT IS ALL ABOUT INFORMATION 532 INTRODUCING PROBABILITY IN SCIENCE 54 OPERATORS: THE INFORMATION EXTRACTORS 55 PREDICTING THE MEASUREMENTS 551 EXPECTATION VALUES 552 OPERATORS 56 PUT IT ALL INTO AN EQUATION 57 EIGENFUNCTIONS AND EIGENVALUES 58 DOUBLE SLIT EXPERIMENT REVISITED 581 DOUBLE SLIT EXPERIMENT FOR PARTICLES 582 CHASING THE ELECTRON 59 THE QUANTUM REALITY 510 LIVING IN THE QUANTUM WORLD 511 SUMMARY 512 ADDITIONAL PROBLEMS 6 THE ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF AN EQUATION 61 INTRODUCTION 62 THE SCHRÖDINGER WAVE EQUATION 63 THE SCHRÖDINGER EQUATION FOR A FREE PARTICLE 64 SCHRÖDINGER EQUATION FOR A PARTICLE IN A BOX 641 SETTING UP AND SOLVING THE SCHRÖDINGER EQUATION 642 HERE COMES THE ENERGY QUANTIZATION 643 EXPLORING THE SOLUTIONS OF THE SCHRÖDINGER EQUATION 644 THE UNCERTAINTY AND CORRESPONDENCE PRINCIPLES: REVISITED 645 QUANTUM MECHANICAL TUNNELING 65 A PARTICLE IN A THREE-DIMENSIONAL BOX 66 HARMONIC OSCILLATOR 661 UNDERSTANDING HARMONIC MOTION 662 HARMONIC MOTION IN QUANTUM MECHANICS 67 UNDERSTANDING THE WAVE FUNCTIONS OF A HARMONIC OSCILLATOR 68 COMPARING QUANTUM MECHANICAL OSCILLATOR WITH CLASSICAL OSCILLATOR 69 LIVING IN THE QUANTUM WORLD 610 SUMMARY 611 ADDITIONAL PROBLEMS 7 QUANTUM MECHANICS OF AN ATOM 71 INTRODUCTION 72 APPLYING THE SCHRÖDINGER EQUATION TO THE HYDROGEN ATOM 73 SOLVING THE SCHRÖDINGER EQUATION FOR THE HYDROGEN ATOM 731 SEPARATING THE VARIABLES IN THE SCHRÖDINGER EQUATION 732 SOLUTION OF THE AZIMUTHAL EQUATION 733 SOLUTIONS OF THE ANGULAR EQUATION 734 SOLUTIONS OF THE RADIAL EQUATION 735 SOLUTIONS OF THE SCHRÖDINGER EQUATION FOR THE HYDROGEN ATOM: PUTTING IT ALL TOGETHER 74 FINDING THE ELECTRON 75 UNDERSTANDING THE QUANTUM NUMBERS 751 THE PRINCIPAL QUANTUM NUMBER AND ENERGY RADIATIONS 752 THE ORBITAL QUANTUM NUMBER 753 MAGNETIC QUANTUM NUMBER 76 THE SIGNI? CANCE OF HYDROGEN 77 LIVING IN THE QUANTUM WORLD 78 SUMMARY 79 ADDITIONAL PROBLEMS 8 QUANTUM MECHANICS OF MANY-ELECTRON ATOMS 81 INTRODUCTION 82 TWO CHALLENGES TO QUANTUM MECHANICS: THE PERIODIC TABLE AND THE ZEEMAN EFFECT 821 THE PERIODIC TABLE OF ELEMENTS 822 THE SPLIT SPECTRAL LINES AND THE ZEEMAN EFFECT 83 INTRODUCING THE ELECTRON SPIN 84 EXCLUSION PRINCIPLE 85 UNDERSTANDING THE ATOMIC STRUCTURE 851 UNDERSTANDING SHELLS, SUBSHELLS, AND ORBITALS 852 UNDERSTANDING THE ELECTRON CON? GURATION OF ATOMS 86 UNDERSTANDING THE PHYSICAL BASIS OF THE PERIODIC TABLE 861 GENERAL TRENDS ACROSS GROUPS AND PERIODS 862 ALKALIS AND ALKALINE EARTHS 863 TRANSITION METALS 864 INERT GASES 865 HALOGENS 866 LANTHANIDES AND ACTINIDES 87 COMPLETING THE STORY OF ANGULAR MOMENTUM 88 UNDERSTANDING THE ZEEMAN EFFECT 89 LIVING IN THE QUANTUM WORLD 810 SUMMARY 811 ADDITIONAL PROBLEMS 9 QUANTUM MECHANICS OF MOLECULES 91 INTRODUCTION 92 A SYSTEM OF MOLECULES IN MOTION 93 BOND: THE ATOMIC BOND 94 DIATOMIC MOLECULES 95 ROTATIONAL STATES OF MOLECULES 96 VIBRATIONAL STATES OF MOLECULES 97 COMBINATION OF ROTATIONS AND VIBRATIONS 98 ELECTRONIC STATES OF MOLECULES 99 LIVING IN THE QUANTUM WORLD 910 SUMMARY 911 ADDITIONAL PROBLEMS 10 STATISTICAL QUANTUM MECHANICS 101 INTRODUCTION 102 STATISTICAL DISTRIBUTIONS 103 MAXWELL–BOLTZMANN DISTRIBUTION 104 MOLECULAR SYSTEMS WITH QUANTUM STATES 105 DISTRIBUTION OF VIBRATIONAL ENERGIES 1051 VIBRATIONAL ENERGY 1052 POPULATION PROBABILITY OF VIBRATIONAL STATES 1053 CORRESPONDENCE WITH CLASSICAL MECHANICS 106 DISTRIBUTION OF ROTATIONAL ENERGIES 1061 ROTATIONAL ENERGY 1062 POPULATION PROBABILITY OF ROTATIONAL STATES 1063 CORRESPONDENCE WITH CLASSICAL MECHANICS 107 DISTRIBUTION OF TRANSLATIONAL ENERGIES 108 QUANTUM STATISTICS OF DISTINGUISHABLE PARTICLES: PUTTING IT ALL TOGETHER 109 QUANTUM STATISTICS OF INDISTINGUISHABLE PARTICLES 1010 PLANCK’S RADIATION FORMULA 1011 ABSORPTION, EMISSION, AND LASERS 1012 BOSE–EINSTEIN CONDENSATION 1013 LIVING IN THE QUANTUM WORLD 1014 SUMMARY 1015 ADDITIONAL PROBLEMS 11 QUANTUM MECHANICS: A THREAD RUNS THROUGH IT ALL 111 INTRODUCTION 112 NANOSCIENCE AND NANOTECHNOLOGY 1121 SCIENCES BEHIND NANOSCIENCE 1122 YOU NEED TO SEE THEM BEFORE YOU COULD CONTROL THEM 113 NANOSCALE QUANTUM CON? NEMENT OF MATTER 1131 BUCKYBALLS 1132 CARBON NANOTUBES 1133 NANOCRYSTALS 1134 QUANTUM DOTS 1135 QUANTUM MECHANICS FOR NANOSTRUCTURES 1136 FAVORING BALLS AND TUBES 1137 FRUITS OF QUANTUM CON? NEMENT 114 QUICK OVERVIEW OF MICROELECTRONICS 1141 MICROELECTRONICS: A HINDSIGHT 1142 BASICS OF MICROCHIPS 115 QUANTUM COMPUTING 116 QUANTUM BIOLOGY 1161 FOUR FUNDAMENTAL NANOSTRUCTURES OF LIFE 1162 CENTRAL DOGMA OF MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 1163 SIZES OF BIOLOGICAL PARTICLES 1164 DIVING DEEPER INTO THE CELL WITH QUANTUM MECHANICS 117 EXPLORING THE INTERFACE OF CLASSICAL MECHANICS AND QUANTUM MECHANICS 118 LIVING IN THE QUANTUM WORLD 119 SUMMARY 1110 ADDITIONAL PROBLEMS