PHYSICAL BODIES

By EVELYN BROWN

1 Terminology, the Standard Human, and Scaling 1 11 Anatomical Terminology 2 12 Motion in the Human Machine 5 13 The Standard Human 16 14 Scaling Relationships 23 141 Allometric Rules 24 142 Scaling in the Senses 26 15 Summary 27 Problems 27 References 37 2 Statics of the Body 39 21 Review of Forces, Torques, and Equilibrium 39 22 Statics: Motion in One Plane and Levers 42 23 Statics in the Body 46 231 The Lower Arm 46 232 Hip Problems 52 233 Statics of Other Synovial Joints 61 234 Lower Back Problems 69 235 Three-Force Rule 78 236 Multisegment Modeling 79 24 The Sense of Touch 81 25 Diversion into the Units of Force and Pressure 82 251 Force 82 252 Pressure 83 26 Summary 84 Problems 85 References 93 3 Motion 95 31 Kinematics and Musculature 98 32 Standing 105 321 Stability 105 322 Forces on the Feet 109 33 Walking 109 331 Kinematics 110 332 Muscular Action 112 333 Friction 113 334 Energetics 118 335 Review of Harmonic Motion, Pendulums, and Moments of Inertia 121 336 Ballistic (or Pendulum) Model of Walking 126 337 Inverted Pendulum Model 129 34 Running 130 341 Kinematics 130 342 Muscular Action 132 343 Energetics 133 344 Bouncing Ball/Pogo Stick Model 139 35 Jumping 140 351 Vertical Jump 141 352 Pole Vault 145 353 High Jump and Long Jump 147 36 Throwing a Ball 150 361 Comparing Throwing Motions 163 362 Power Generated During a Throw 164 37 Batting and Swinging Motions 165 38 Other Types of Motion 167 39 Multisegment Modeling (Advanced Topic) 170 310 Collisions of the Human Body 173 3101 Kinematics of a Collision 173 3102 Consequences of Collisions 175 3103 Contact Sports 182 3104 Hitting Balls 187 3105 Running 191 3106 Jumping 193 3107 Chewing Food 193 311 Sustained Acceleration 194 312 Flight of the Ball 195 3121 The Effect of Air Drag on Moving Balls and Humans 196 3122 The Flight of a Spinning Ball 202 3123 Bouncing, Rolling and Hitting Balls, including those with Spin 204 313 Summary 210 Problems 210 References 240 4 Mechanical Properties of the Body 247 41 Material Components of the Body 250 411 Bone 251 412 Ligaments and Tendons 253 413 Cartilage 254 42 Elastic Properties 255 421 Basic Stress–Strain Relationships 255 422 Other Stress–Strain Relations 258 423 Bone Shortening 259 424 Energy Storage in Elastic Media 260 43 Time-Independent Deviations in Hookean Materials 263 431 Non-Hookean Materials 272 44 Static Equilibrium of Deformable Bodies (Advanced Topic) 274 441 Bending of a Beam (or Bone) 279 45 Time-Dependent Deviations from Elastic Behavior: Viscoelasticity 283 451 Perfect Spring 287 452 Perfect Dashpot 287 453 Simple Viscoelastic Models 289 46 Viscoelasticity in Bone 297 47 Bone Fractures 299 471 Modes of Sudden Breaking of Bones 300 472 Stress Fractures (Advanced Topic) 307 48 Common Sports Injuries 311 49 Avoiding Fractures and Other Injuries: Materials for Helmets 314 410 Mechanical Properties of Food 317 411 Summary 319 Problems 319 References 326 5 Muscles 331 51 Skeletal Muscles in the Body 332 511 Types of Muscle Activity 335 52 The Structure of Muscles 336 53 Activating Muscles: Macroscopic View 341 531 Mechanical Model of the Active State of Muscles 344 54 Passive Muscles 350 55 Active/Tetanized Muscles: Microscopic View 351 551 Total Muscle Tension 352 552 Everyday Proof of the Limited Range of Useful Muscle Length 353 56 Hill Force–Velocity Curve 355 57 The Combined Muscle-Tendon System 362 58 The Sliding Filament Model: Nanoscopic View 363 581 Statistical Model of the Hill Force–Velocity Curve (Advanced Topic) 368 59 Titin 370 510 Coordination of Muscles 371 511 Muscle Strength and Evolution 374 5111 Increasing Strength with Training 374 5112 Muscle Evolution with Age 376 5113 Muscle Fatigue 377 512 Summary 378 Problems 378 References 388 6 Metabolism: Energy, Heat, Work, and Power of the Body 393 61 Conservation of Energy and Heat Flow 394 62 Energy Content of Body Fuel 396 621 Metabolizable Energy 400 622 Energy Storage 402 63 Energy Storage Molecules 405 631 How ATP Is Produced and Used as an Energy Source 405 632 How ATP Is Actually Used by the Body 407 64 Metabolic Rates 415 641 Basal Metabolic Rate 415 642 Metabolic Rates During Common Activities 421 643 Weight Gain and Loss 438 65 Loss of Body Heat 442 651 Modes of Heat Loss 444 66 Body Temperature 459 67 Summary 466 Problems 467 References 485 7 Fluid Pressure, Fluid Flow in the Body, and Motion in Fluids 491 71 Characteristic Pressures in the Body 492 711 Definition and Units 492 712 Measuring Pressure 492 72 Basic Physics of Pressure and Flow of Fluids 494 721 Law of Laplace 495 722 Fluids in Motion 497 723 Equation of Continuity 498 724 Bernoulli’s Equation 499 725 Interactions Among the Flow Parameters 500 726 Resistance in Flow: Viscous Flow and Poiseuille’s Law 501 727 Compliance in Flow 509 728 Inertance in Flow 511 729 Flow Under Special Conditions 512 7210 Flow of Objects in Fluids: Drag and Lift 513 73 Diffusion (Advanced Topic) 515 74 Pressure and Flow in the Body 518 75 Motion of Humans in Fluids 519 751 Swimming 520 752 Human Flight 523 76 Summary 524 Problems 525 References 530 8 Cardiovascular System 533 81 Overview of the Circulatory System and Cardiac Cycle 533 811 Circulation 533 812 Cardiac Cycle 541 813 Valves 544 82 Physics of the Circulation System 546 821 Properties of Blood 546 822 Blood Pressure and Flow in Vessels 547 823 Capillaries and Osmotic Pressure 561 824 Blood Flow Rates and Speeds 564 825 Consequences of Clogged Arteries 572 826 Work Done by the Heart and the Metabolic Needs of the Heart 576 83 Strokes and Aneurysms 577 831 Hemorrhagic Strokes 578 832 Ischemic Strokes 587 84 Modeling the Circulatory System and the Heart 588 841 Model of the Heart 588 842 Model of the Overall Flow in the Circulatory System 592 843 The Arterial Pulse 596 844 Windkessel Model 600 845 Modeling the Malfunctioning Heart 601 85 Summary 605 Problems 605 References 618 9 Lungs and Breathing 623 91 Structure of the Lungs 624 92 The Physics of the Alveoli 628 93 Physics of Breathing 632 94 Volume of the Lungs 635 95 Breathing Under Usual and Unusual Conditions 637 951 Flow of Air During Breathing 637 952 Mechanical Model of Breathing and Model Parameters 640 953 Inspiration/Expiration Cycle 640 954 Breathing with a Diseased Lung 641 955 Breathing at Higher Elevations and Under Other Unusual Conditions 644 96 Work Needed to Breathe 646 97 Summary 647 Problems 648 References 654 10 Sound, Speech, and Hearing 657 101 The Physics of Sound Waves 658 1011 The Speed and Properties of Sound Waves 659 1012 Intensity of Sound Waves 661 1013 What Happens When Sound Travels from One Medium to Another? 667 1014 Resonant Cavities 670 102 Speech Production 673 1021 Types of Sounds 673 1022 Systems in Speech Production 677 1023 Parameters of the Human Voice 691 1024 The Energetics of Speaking 692 103 Hearing 693 1031 Auditory Sensitivity 694 1032 Connections to Hearing Perception 712 104 Other Vibrations in the Body 716 1041 Cardiac and Other Sources of Sounds 716 105 Summary 719 Problems 719 References 728 11 Light, Eyes and Vision 731 111 Structure of the Eye 731 112 Focusing and Imaging with Lenses 738 1121 Image Formation 738 1122 Scientific Basis for Imaging 741 1123 Combinations of Lenses or Refractive Surfaces 745 113 Imaging and Detection by the Eye 753 1131 Transmission of Light in the Eye 753 1132 The Eye as a Compound Lens 755 1133 Accommodation 761 1134 Field of View and Binocular Vision 763 1135 Adjustments of Light Levels 763 1136 Limitations to Visual Acuity 765 1137 Imperfect Human Vision 775 1138 Correction of Vision by Eyeglasses, Contact Lenses, and Other Means 780 114 Types of Vision Impairment 790 115 Connections to Visual Perception 791 116 Vision in Other Animals 798 117 Summary 802 Problems 802 References 815 12 Electrical and Magnetic Properties 819 121 Review of Electrical Properties 820 122 Electrical Properties of Body Tissues 824 1221 Electrical Conduction Through Blood and Tissues 824 123 Nerve Conduction 825 1231 Cell Membranes and Ion Distributions 827 1232 Types of Cell Membrane Excitations 836 1233 Model of Electrical Conduction Along an Axon 838 124 Ion Channels, Hair Cells, Balance, Taste, and Smell 849 125 Electrical Properties of the Heart 851 126 Electrical Signals in the Brain 859 127 Effects of Electric Shock 861 128 Magnetic Properties 862 1281 Magnetic Field from an Axon 863 1282 Magnetic Sense 864 129 Electromagnetic Waves 864 1210 Summary 864 Problems 865 References 870 13 Feedback and Control 873 131 Basics of Feedback and Control 874 1311 Control Theory (Advanced Topic) 876 132 Regulation of the Body 878 1321 Regulation of Temperature 878 1322 Control of Blood Pressure 884 1323 Regulation During Exercise 885 1324 Regulation of the Pupil Size 885 133 Summary 887 Problems 887 References 888