THE JOULE-THOMSON EFFECT FOR AIR AT MODERATE TEMPERATURES AND PRESSURES
CONTENTS PART I MECHANICS INTRODUCTION; DISTANCE AND TIME MEASUREMENTS INTRODUCTION DISTANCE AND LENGTH MEASUREMENTS DIRECT DISTANCE MEASUREMENTS THE METER AS A UNIT OF LENGTH INDIRECT LENGTH MEASUREMENTS OF VERY LARGE DISTANCES ANGLE MEASUREMENTS TIME DETERMINATIONS TRUE TIME MEASUREMENTS CLOCKS AND GRAPHICAL REGISTRATION MEASUREMENT OF PERIODIC SEQUENCES OF EQUAL TIMES AND LENGTHS INDIRECT TIME MEASUREMENTS EXERCISES THE DESCRIPTION OF MOTION: KINEMATICS DE?NITION OF MOTION FRAMES OF REFERENCE DE?NITION OF VELOCITY EXAMPLE OF A VELOCITY MEASUREMENT DE?NITION OF ACCELERATION: THE TWO LIMITING CASES PATH ACCELERATION AND LINEAR MOTION CONSTANT RADIAL ACCELERATION AND CIRCULAR ORBITS DISTINGUISHING PHYSICAL QUANTITIES AND THEIR NUMERICAL VALUES BASE QUANTITIES AND DERIVED QUANTITIES FUNDAMENTALS OF DYNAMICS FORCE AND MASS MEASUREMENTS OF FORCE AND MASS NEWTON’S FUNDAMENTAL EQUATION OF MOTION THE UNITS OF FORCE AND MASS EXPRESSIONS CONTAINING PHYSICAL QUANTITIES DENSITY AND SPECI?C VOLUME APPLICATIONS OF NEWTON’S EQUATION CONSTANT ACCELERATION IN A STRAIGHT LINE CIRCULAR MOTION AND RADIAL FORCES SINUSOIDAL OSCILLATIONS: THE GRAVITY PENDULUM AS A SPECIAL CASE MOTIONS AROUND A CENTRAL POINT ELLIPTICAL ORBITS AND ELLIPTICALLY POLARIZED OSCILLATIONS LISSAJOUS ORBITS KEPLER’S ELLIPTICAL ORBITS AND THE LAW OF GRAVITY THE GRAVITATIONAL CONSTANT THE LAW OF GRAVITY AND CELESTIAL MECHANICS THREE USEFUL CONCEPTS: WORK, ENERGY, AND MOMENTUM PRELIMINARY REMARKS WORK AND POWER ENERGY AND ITS CONSERVATION FIRST APPLICATIONS OF THE CONSERVATION LAW OF MECHANICAL ENERGY IMPULSE AND MOMENTUM MOMENTUM CONSERVATION FIRST APPLICATIONS OF MOMENTUM CONSERVATION MOMENTUM AND ENERGY CONSERVATION DURING ELASTIC COLLISIONS OF OBJECTS MOMENTUM CONSERVATION IN INELASTIC COLLISIONS AND THE BALLISTIC PENDULUM NON-CENTRAL COLLISIONS MOTIONS AGAINST DISSIPATIVE FORCES THE PRODUCTION OF FORCES WITH AND WITHOUT CONSUMING POWER CLOSING REMARKS ROTATIONAL MOTION OF RIGID BODIES INTRODUCTORY REMARKS DE?NITION OF TORQUE THE PRODUCTION OF KNOWN TORQUES, THE CONSTANT D*, AND THE ANGULAR VELOCITY ! THE MOMENT OF INERTIA, EQUATION OF MOTION FOR ROTATIONS, TORSIONAL OSCILLATIONS THE PHYSICAL PENDULUM AND THE BEAM BALANCE ANGULAR MOMENTUM FREE AXES FREE AXES OF HUMANS AND ANIMALS DE?NITION OF THE SPINNING TOP AND ITS THREE AXES THE NUTATION OF A FORCE-FREE TOP AND ITS FIXED SPIN AXIS TOPS ACTED ON BY TORQUES PRECESSION OF THE ANGULAR-MOMENTUM AXIS PRECESSION CONE WITH NUTATION A TOP WITH ONLY TWO DEGREES OF FREEDOM ACCELERATED FRAMES OF REFERENCE PRELIMINARY REMARKS INERTIAL FORCES FRAMES OF REFERENCE WITH ONLY PATH ACCELERATION FRAMES OF REFERENCE WITH RADIAL ACCELERATION CENTRIFUGAL AND CORIOLIS FORCES VEHICLES AS ACCELERATED FRAMES OF REFERENCE THE GRAVITY PENDULUM AS A PLUMB BOB IN ACCELERATED VEHICLES EARTH AS AN ACCELERATED FRAME OF REFERENCE CENTRIFUGAL ACCELERATION OF BODIES AT REST EARTH AS AN ACCELERATED FRAME OF REFERENCE CORIOLIS FORCE ON MOVING BODIES SOME PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS ELASTIC DEFORMATION, FLOW AND SOLIDI?CATION HOOKE’S LAW AND POISSON’S RELATION SHEAR STRESS NORMAL, SHEAR AND PRINCIPAL STRESS BENDING AND TWISTING (TORSION) TIME DEPENDENCE OF DEFORMATION ELASTIC AFTEREFFECTS AND HYSTERESIS RUPTURE STRENGTH AND SPECI?C SURFACE ENERGY OF SOLIDS STICKING AND SLIDING FRICTION ROLLING FRICTION LIQUIDS AND GASES AT REST THE FREE DISPLACEMENTS OF LIQUID MOLECULES PRESSURE IN LIQUIDS MANOMETERS THE ISOTROPY OF PRESSURE AND ITS APPLICATIONS THE PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION IN A GRAVITATIONAL FIELD BUOYANCY COHESION OF LIQUIDS: TENSILE STRENGTH, SPECI?C SURFACE ENERGY, AND SURFACE TENSION GASES AS LOW-DENSITY LIQUIDS WITHOUT SURFACES BOYLE’S LAW A MODEL GAS PRESSURE DUE TO RANDOM MOLECULAR MOTIONS (THERMAL MOTION) THE FUNDAMENTAL EQUATION OF THE KINETIC THEORY OF GASES VELOCITY OF THE GAS MOLECULES THE EARTH’S ATMOSPHERE ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE IN DEMONSTRATION EXPERIMENTS THE PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION OF GASES IN THE GRAVITATIONAL FIELD THE BAROMETRIC PRESSURE FORMULA STATIC BUOYANCY IN GASES GASES AND LIQUIDS IN ACCELERATED FRAMES OF REFERENCE MOTIONS IN LIQUIDS AND GASES THREE PRELIMINARY REMARKS INTERNAL FRICTION AND BOUNDARY LAYERS LAMINAR FLOW: FLUID MOTIONS WHICH OCCUR WHEN FRICTION PLAYS A DECISIVE ROLE THE REYNOLDS NUMBER FRICTIONLESS FLUID MOTION AND BERNOULLI’S EQUATION FLOW AROUND OBSTACLES SOURCES AND SINKS IRROTATIONAL OR POTENTIAL FLOWS ROTATIONS OF FLUIDS AND THEIR MEASUREMENT THE IRROTATIONAL VORTEX FIELD VORTICES AND SEPARATION SURFACES IN NEARLY FRICTIONLESS FLUIDS FLOW RESISTANCE AND STREAMLINE PRO?LES 10 10 THE DYNAMIC TRANSVERSE FORCE OR LIFT 10 11 APPLICATIONS OF THE TRANSVERSE FORCE PART II VIBRATIONS AND WAVES VIBRATIONS PRODUCING UNDAMPED VIBRATIONS THE SYNTHESIS OF NON-SINUSOIDAL PERIODIC PROCESSES FROM SINE CURVES THE SPECTRAL REPRESENTATION OF COMPLEX OSCILLATORY PROCESSES ELASTIC TRANSVERSE VIBRATIONS OF LINEAR SOLID BODIES UNDER TENSILE STRESS ELASTIC LONGITUDINAL AND TORSIONAL VIBRATIONS OF STRESSED LINEAR SOLID BODIES ELASTIC VIBRATIONS IN COLUMNS OF LIQUIDS AND GASES NORMAL MODES OF STIFF LINEAR BODIES NORMAL MODES OF 2-DIMENSIONAL AND 3-DIMENSIONAL BODIES THERMAL VIBRATIONS 11 10 FORCED OSCILLATIONS 11 11 ENERGY TRANSFER STIMULATED BY RESONANCE 11 12 THE IMPORTANCE OF RESONANCE FOR THE DETECTION OF PURE SINUSOIDAL OSCILLATIONS SPECTRAL APPARATUS 11 13 THE IMPORTANCE OF FORCED OSCILLATIONS FOR DISTORTION-FREE RECORDING OF NON-SINUSOIDAL OSCILLATIONS 11 14 THE AMPLI?CATION OF OSCILLATIONS 11 15 TWO COUPLED OSCILLATORS AND THEIR FORCED OSCILLATIONS 11 16 DAMPED AND UNDAMPED WOBBLE OSCILLATIONS 11 17 RELAXATION (OR TOGGLE) OSCILLATIONS TRAVELLING WAVES AND RADIATION TRAVELLING WAVES THE DOPPLER EFFECT INTERFERENCE INTERFERENCE WITH TWO SLIGHTLY DIFFERENT SOURCE FREQUENCIES STANDING WAVES THE PROPAGATION OF TRAVELLING WAVES RE?ECTION AND REFRACTION IMAGE FORMATION TOTAL RE?ECTION 12 10 SHOCKWAVES WHEN THE WAVE VELOCITY IS EXCEEDED 12 11 HUYGHENS’ PRINCIPLE 12 12 MODEL EXPERIMENTS ON WAVE PROPAGATION 12 13 QUANTITATIVE RESULTS FOR DIFFRACTION BY A SLIT 12 14 FRESNEL’S ZONE CONSTRUCTION 12 15 NARROWING OF THE INTERFERENCE FRINGES BY A LATTICE ARRANGEMENT OF THE WAVE SOURCES 12 16 INTERFERENCE OF WAVE TRAINS OF LIMITED LENGTH 12 17 THE PRODUCTION OF LONGITUDINAL WAVES AND THEIR VELOCITIES 12 18 HIGH-FREQUENCY LONGITUDINAL WAVES IN AIR THE ACOUSTIC REPLICA METHOD 12 19 THE RADIATION PRESSURE OF SOUND SOUND RADIOMETERS 12 20 RE?ECTION, REFRACTION, DIFFRACTION AND INTERFERENCE OF 3-DIMENSIONAL WAVES 12 21 THE ORIGIN OF WAVES ON LIQUID SURFACES 12 22 DISPERSION AND THE GROUP VELOCITY 12 23 THE EXCITATION OF WAVES BY APERIODIC PROCESSES 12 24 THE ENERGY OF A SOUND FIELD THE WAVE RESISTANCE FOR SOUND WAVES 12 25 SOUND SOURCES 12 26 APERIODIC SOUND SOURCES AND SUPERSONIC VELOCITIES 12 27 SOUND RECEIVERS 12 28 THE SENSE OF HEARING 12 29 PHONOMETRY 12 30 THE HUMAN EAR PART III THERMODYNAMICS FUNDAMENTALS PRELIMINARY REMARKS DE?NITION OF THE CONCEPT ‘AMOUNT OF SUBSTANCE’ THE DE?NITION AND MEASUREMENT OF TEMPERATURE THE DE?NITIONS OF THE CONCEPTS OF HEAT AND HEAT CAPACITY LATENT HEAT EXERCISE THE FIRST LAW AND THE EQUATION OF STATE OF IDEAL GASES WORK OF EXPANSION AND TECHNICAL WORK THERMAL STATE VARIABLES THE INTERNAL ENERGY U AND THE FIRST LAW THE STATE FUNCTION ENTHALPY, H THE TWO SPECI?C HEATS, CP AND CV THE THERMAL EQUATION OF STATE OF IDEAL GASES ABSOLUTE TEMPERATURES ADDITION OF PARTIAL PRESSURES THE CALORIC EQUATIONS OF STATE OF IDEAL GASES GAY-LUSSAC’S THROTTLE EXPERIMENT CHANGES OF STATE OF IDEAL GASES 14 10 APPLICATIONS OF POLYTROPIC AND ADIABATIC CHANGES OF STATE MEASUREMENTS OF 14 11 PNEUMATIC MOTORS AND GAS COMPRESSORS REAL GASES PHASE CHANGES OF REAL GASES DISTINGUISHING THE GAS FROM THE LIQUID THE VAN DER WAALS EQUATION OF STATE FOR REAL GASES THE JOULE-THOMSON THROTTLE EXPERIMENT THE PRODUCTION OF LOW TEMPERATURES AND LIQUEFACTION OF GASES TECHNICAL LIQUEFACTION PROCESSES AND THE SEPARATION OF GASES VAPOR PRESSURE AND BOILING TEMPERATURE THE TRIPLE POINT HINDRANCE OF THE PHASE TRANSITION LIQUID ! SOLID: SUPERCOOLED LIQUIDS HINDRANCE OF THE PHASE TRANSITION LIQUID $ GAS: THE TENSILE STRENGTH OF LIQUIDS HEAT AS RANDOM MOTION TEMPERATURE ON THE MOLECULAR SCALE THE RECOIL OF GAS MOLECULES UPON RE?ECTION THE “RADIOMETER FORCE” THE VELOCITY DISTRIBUTION AND THE MEAN FREE PATH OF THE GAS MOLECULES MOLAR HEAT CAPACITIES IN A MOLECULAR PICTURE THE EQUIPARTITION PRINCIPLE OSMOSIS AND OSMOTIC PRESSURE THE EXPERIMENTAL DETERMINATION OF BOLTZMANN’S CONSTANT K FROM THE BAROMETRIC EQUATION STATISTICAL FLUCTUATIONS AND THE PARTICLE NUMBER THE BOLTZMANN DISTRIBUTION TRANSPORT PROCESSES: DIFFUSION AND HEAT CONDUCTION DIFFUSION AND MIXING FICK’S FIRST LAW AND THE DIFFUSION CONSTANT QUASI-STATIONARY DIFFUSION NON-STATIONARY DIFFUSION GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS ON HEAT CONDUCTION AND HEAT TRANSPORT STATIONARY HEAT CONDUCTION NON-STATIONARY HEAT CONDUCTION TRANSPORT PROCESSES IN GASES AND THEIR LACK OF PRESSURE DEPENDENCE 17 10 DETERMINATION OF THE MEAN FREE PATH 17 11 THE MUTUAL RELATIONS OF TRANSPORT PROCESSES IN GASES THE STATE FUNCTION ENTROPY, S REVERSIBLE PROCESSES IRREVERSIBLE PROCESSES MEASUREMENT OF THE IRREVERSIBILITY USING THE STATE FUNCTION ENTROPY ENTROPY IN A MOLECULAR PICTURE EXAMPLES OF THE CALCULATION OF THE ENTROPY APPLICATION OF ENTROPY TO REVERSIBLE CHANGES OF STATE IN CLOSED SYSTEMS THE H-S OR MOLLIER DIAGRAM WITH APPLICATIONS SUPERSONIC GAS JETS CONVERTING HEAT INTO WORK THE SECOND LAW HEAT ENGINES AND THE SECOND LAW THE CARNOT CYCLE THE STIRLING ENGINE TECHNICAL HEAT ENGINES HEAT PUMPS (REFRIGERATION DEVICES) THE THERMODYNAMIC DE?NITION OF TEMPERATURE PNEUMATIC MOTORS FREE AND BOUND ENERGY EXAMPLES OF APPLICATIONS OF THE FREE ENERGY THE HUMAN BODY AS AN ISOTHERMAL ENGINE TABLE OF PHYSICAL CONSTANTS SOLUTIONS TO THE EXERCISES