BATTERY REFERENCE BOOK

By T. GADAT

INTRODUCTION ENERGY SUPPLY IN GENERAL ELECTROCHEMICAL AND NON-ELECTROCHEMICAL ENERGY TECHNOLOGIES CAPACITORS AND ULTRACAPACITORS SUPERCONDUCTING COILS FLYWHEELS COMPRESSED AIR AND PUMPED WATER STORAGE BASIC PROPERTIES OF BATTERIES: SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCES BRIDGING TIME COMPARISON OF BATTERY TECHNOLOGIES APPLICATIONS AND INTEGRATION OF BATTERIES INTO OVERALL SYSTEMS REFERENCES TASKS ELECTROCHEMICAL BASICS BASIC ELECTROCHEMICAL TERMS SOME DEFINITIONS VOLTAGE AND CHARGE CARRIER DISTRIBUTION THE MAIN REACTIONS – THE VOLTAGE DEFINING REACTIONS DOUBLE-LAYER CAPACITOR AND EXCHANGE CURRENT DENSITY FARADAY NUMBER THEORETICAL SPECIFIC CAPACITY OF ELECTRODES OR CELLS ELECTROCHEMICAL THERMODYNAMICS ENERGY BALANCE AND EQUILIBRIUM VOLTAGE CONCENTRATION DEPENDENCE OF THE EQUILIBRIUM VOLTAGE (NERNST VOLTAGE) TEMPERATURE DEPENDENCE OF THE EQUILIBRIUM VOLTAGE ENTROPY TERM AND TEMPERATURE – REVERSIBLE HEAT ELECTROCHEMICAL SERIES LIMITS OF THERMODYNAMIC CONSIDERATIONS THEORETICAL SPECIFIC ENERGY REFERENCE ELECTRODE ELECTROCHEMICAL KINETICS TYPES OF OVERVOLTAGE CHARGE TRANSFER VOLTAGE BUTLER-VOLMER EQUATION DEPENDENCE OF THE BV EQUATION ON IMPORTANT SYSTEM PARAMETERS TRANSFER COEFFICIENT NUMBER OF ELECTRONS TRANSFERRED Z EXCHANGE CURRENT CHARGE TRANSFER VOLTAGE AS RESISTANCE EFFECTS OF TEMPERATURE U-I CHARACTERISTIC CURVE OF ELECTROCHEMICAL SYSTEMS EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT DIAGRAMS BASICS OF EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT DIAGRAMS FOR ELECTROCHEMICAL SYSTEMS BASIC EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT DIAGRAMS OF AN ELECTRODE AND A CELL EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT DIAGRAM WITH CONSTANT CURRENT SIDE REACTIONS CHARGING AND DISCHARGING CELLS AND BATTERIES DEFINITIONS OF CAPACITY AND INTERNAL RESISTANCE CAPACITY INTERNAL RESISTANCE TERMS USED FOR CHARGING AND DISCHARGING BATTERIES DISCHARGING CHARGING CHARGE FACTOR AND EFFICIENCY DISCHARGING AND CHARGING THE ELECTRODES OF A CELL SIGNIFICANCE OF THE BV EQUATION FOR CHANGES IN CURRENT AND VOLTAGE DISCHARGING AND CHARGING WITH CONSTANT CURRENT CHARGING WITH CONSTANT VOLTAGE CURRENT AND VOLTAGE CURVE OF BATTERIES SERIES CONNECTION OF ELECTRODES – INTERACTIONS BETWEEN ELECTRODES DISCHARGING AND CHARGING ELECTRODES IN A CELL SIGNIFICANCE OF SIDE REACTIONS IN SERIES CONNECTION DISCHARGING CELLS WITHOUT SIDE REACTIONS IN SERIES CONNECTION DISCHARGING CELLS WITH SIDE REACTIONS IN SERIES CONNECTION CHARGING CELLS WITH SIDE REACTIONS IN SERIES CONNECTION CHARGING CELLS IN SERIES WITHOUT SIDE REACTIONS EFFECTS OF A SHORT CIRCUIT IN A CELL CONNECTED IN SERIES FAULT PROPAGATION, PARALLEL BATTERY STRINGS, AND MORE STRUCTURE OF ELECTRODES, DESIGN OF CELLS, AND COMPLETE BATTERY SYSTEMS ELECTROCHEMICAL REQUIREMENTS FOR THE STRUCTURE OF ACTIVE MASSES GENERAL REQUIREMENTS AVAILABILITY OF REACTANTS MASS TRANSPORT RESTRICTIONS IN THE ELECTROLYTE IONIC AND ELECTRONIC CONDUCTIVITY OF ELECTRODES AND CELLS IONIC CONDUCTIVITY OF THE ELECTROLYTE ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY OF THE CHARGED AND DISCHARGED ACTIVE MATERIALS MECHANICAL STRESS ON THE ELECTRODES IMPACT OF PRODUCTION PROCESSES AND USE OF BATTERY VOLUME CHANGES DUE TO THE DISCHARGING AND CHARGING PROCESS STRUCTURE OF CELLS GENERAL INFORMATION BIPOLAR PLATE DESIGN STACKED AND WOUND CELLS COMBINED ION AND ELECTRON CONDUCTIVITY OF THE ELECTRODES CELL CONTAINERS AND BATTERY SYSTEMS SPECIFIC ENERGY OF CELLS, MODULES, AND BATTERY SYSTEMS THERMAL PROPERTIES OF CELLS AND BATTERIES INHOMOGENEOUS HEAT CAPACITY AND ANISOTROPIC HEAT CONDUCTION HEAT GENERATION TYPES OF HEAT GENERATION RESISTANCE LOSSES – OHMIC HEATING CHARGE TRANSFER RESISTANCE REVERSIBLE HEAT OF REACTION COMPARISON OF HEAT GENERATION TERMS HEAT EXCHANGE WITH THE ENVIRONMENT HEAT CONDUCTIVITY CONVECTION RADIATION HEAT BALANCE EFFECT ON TEMPERATURE DETERMINATION OF THERMAL PARAMETERS TASK AGEING PROCESSES AND SERVICE LIFE OF BATTERIES AND CELLS CLASSIFICATION OF AGING PROCESSES SERVICE LIFE DEFINITION OF END OF LIFE DETERMINING END OF LIFE CHANGES IN PROPERTIES DURING USE LIMITS OF THE SERVICE LIFE BASIC LIMITATION OF THE SERVICE LIFE MANUFACTURER’S INFORMATION ON THE EXPECTED SERVICE LIFE LIFETIME PREDICTION WEIGHTED AMPERE-HOUR THROUGHPUT METHODS EVENT-BASED LIFETIME PREDICTION METHODS FORECAST OF THE CAPACITANCE AND INTERNAL RESISTANCE CURVE STATE OF X DE?NITIONS AND CALCULATIONS BACKGROUND STATE OF CHARGE, DEPTH OF DISCHARGE, STATE OF ENERGY DEFINITION OF STATE OF CHARGE MAIN REACTION CURRENT MEASURING THE BATTERY CURRENT CALCULATING THE STATE OF CHARGE YAZAMI THEOREM EXPERIMENTAL DETERMINATION OF THE STATE OF CHARGE DEPTH OF DISCHARGE STATE OF ENERGY STATE OF HEALTH AND STATE OF FUNCTION DEFINITION OF TERMS DIFFERENTIATION AND DISCUSSION OF THE TERMS STATE OF FUNCTION AND STATE OF HEALTH SOH AND SOF IN RELATION TO CAPACITY SOH AND SOF IN RELATION TO THE INTERNAL RESISTANCE MEASUREMENT OF SOH AND SOF STATE OF SAFETY BATTERY MODELS CLASSIFICATION, USE, AND LIMITATIONS OF MODELS THE CONCEPT OF BATTERY MODELING USE OF MODELS LIMITS WHEN USING MODELS EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT DIAGRAM MODELS FUNDAMENTALS STRUCTURE OF EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT DIAGRAM MODELS CAPACITANCE OF A BATTERY INTEGRATION OF MASS TRANSPORT AND TEMPERATURE LOCALLY RESOLVED EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT DIAGRAM MODELS RELAXATION PROCESSES MODELS WITH PARAMETERS INDEPENDENT OF STATE OF CHARGE: THE SHEPHERD MODEL MODELS WITH STATE OF CHARGE-DEPENDENT PARAMETERS THÉVENET MODEL RANDLES MODEL SIMULATION PROCESS COMPARISON OF MODELS MODELING LARGER SYSTEMS FURTHER READING DETERMINATION OF PARAMETERS DEFINITIONS DETERMINATION BY PHYSICOCHEMICAL METHODS EXPERIMENTAL DETERMINATION CAPACITY MEASUREMENT TEMPERATURE AND CURRENT DEPENDENCE OF CAPACITY COLD TEMPERATURE CAPACITY AND CRANKING CURRENT BRIDGING TIME AT CONSTANT POWER OPEN-CIRCUIT VOLTAGE CURVES INTERNAL RESISTANCE DETERMINATION WITH CURRENT OR VOLTAGE PULSES SHORT-CIRCUIT CURRENT PARAMETERIZATION FOR THE RANDLES MODEL USING PULSE CURRENTS (MEASUREMENT IN THE TIME DOMAIN) PARAMETER DETERMINATION BY MEASURING THE IMPEDANCE SPECTRUM (MEASUREMENT IN THE FREQUENCY DOMAIN) MEASUREMENT OF THE AC RESISTANCE PARAMETERIZATION OF THE RANDLES MODEL ACROSS ALL OPERATING STATES BATTERY DIAGNOSTICS AND ANALYTICS OVERVIEW OF METHODS EVALUATION OF CHANGES IN ELECTRICAL PARAMETERS ELECTROCHEMICAL ANALYSIS METHODS STATIONARY ELECTROCHEMICAL ANALYSIS METHODS QUASI-STATIONARY ELECTROCHEMICAL ANALYSIS METHODS IMPEDANCE SPECTROSCOPY NONSTATIONARY PROCEDURES CHEMICAL AND SPECTROSCOPIC METHODS – POSTMORTEM ANALYSIS METHODS GENERAL CHEMICAL TECHNIQUES INCLUDING SEPARATION PROCESSES AND CHARACTERIZATION METHODS FOR SURFACES AND GRAIN SIZES MICROSCOPIC TECHNIQUES SPECTROSCOPIC TECHNIQUES DIFFRACTOMETRIC TECHNIQUES IN SITU ANALYSIS PROCEDURES SUMMARY OVERVIEW OF BATTERY SYSTEMS PHYSICOCHEMICAL DATA AND CHARACTERISTICS INVESTMENT AND OPERATING COSTS MARKET STRUCTURE AVAILABILITY OF INFORMATION LEVEL OF STANDARDIZATION LEAD–ACID BATTERIES INTRODUCTION AND ECONOMIC SIGNIFICANCE ELECTROCHEMISTRY OVERVIEW OF ACTIVE COMPONENTS ELECTROLYTE ACTIVE MASSES OF THE POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE ELECTRODE OVERVIEW OF THE MOST IMPORTANT REACTIONS AT THE POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE ELECTRODE DESCRIPTION OF THE MAIN REACTIONS OVERDISCHARGE REACTIONS DURING DISCHARGING SIDE REACTIONS OF THE POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE ELECTRODES DURING OVERCHARGING COMBINED REACTION WHEN OVERCHARGING SIDE REACTIONS AND SELF-DISCHARGE AT REST CHARGING AND DISCHARGING CELLS IN SERIES OTHER ELECTROCHEMICAL REACTIONS BATTERIES WITH INTERNAL OXYGEN CONSUMPTION CYCLE (SEALED BATTERIES, VRLA) ACTIVE MATERIALS ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY OF THE ACTIVE MASSES EFFECTIVE SURFACE AREA AND MICROSTRUCTURE OF THE ACTIVE MASSES LEAD SULFATE VOLTAGE DIP AT THE START OF DISCHARGING MANUFACTURING PROCESS CURRENT COLLECTORS, GRIDS CORROSION RESISTANCE CURRENT COLLECTOR OF THE NEGATIVE ELECTRODE CURRENT COLLECTOR OF THE POSITIVE ELECTRODE ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE MECHANICAL STABILITY ELECTRICAL CONTACT BETWEEN GRIDS AND ACTIVE MASSES MANUFACTURING PROCESS AND OTHER COMPONENTS FOR THE PRODUCTION OF CELLS OR BLOCKS PRODUCTION OF CURRENT COLLECTORS AND ELECTRODES (PLATES) SEPARATOR PRODUCTION OF ELECTRODE STACKS BATTERY HOUSING AND LID CELL CONNECTOR CURRENT INHOMOGENEITY ACID STRATIFICATION DESIGN AND DESIGN DIFFERENCES FOR VARIOUS APPLICATIONS LAYOUT OF CELLS STARTER BATTERIES TRACTION BATTERIES FOR INDUSTRIAL TRUCKS AND SEMI-TRACTION BATTERIES BATTERIES FOR STATIONARY APPLICATIONS PROPERTIES DISCHARGE BEHAVIOR AND CAPACITY MONITORING REQUIREMENTS DURING DISCHARGING POWER OUTPUT AND INTERNAL RESISTANCE CHARGING AND CHARGING CHARACTERISTICS BASIC INFORMATION ON CHARGING LEAD–ACID BATTERIES IU CHARGING CHARACTERISTIC IUOU CHARGING CHARACTERISTIC FURTHER CHARGING CHARACTERISTICS EVALUATION OF CHARGING CHARACTERISTICS 12 12 5 1 GOOD AND BAD CHARGING 12 12 5 2 INTERRUPTION OF THE CURRENT DURING FLOAT CHARGE 12 12 5 3 ELECTROLYTE CIRCULATION 12 12 5 4 CONSTANT CURRENT OR CONSTANT VOLTAGE CHARGING DURING FLOAT CHARGING 12 12 5 5 CHARGING CURRENT AMPLITUDE 12 12 5 6 CURRENT RIPPLE FULL CHARGE CRITERIA AGING EFFECTS OVERVIEW OF AGING EFFECTS REDUCTION OF THE SURFACE AREA OF THE ACTIVE MASSES SULFATATION PASSIVATING LAYERS – PREMATURE CAPACITY LOSS (PLC) SHEDDING AND SOFTENING OF ACTIVE MASS CORROSION OF THE SEPARATOR DRYING OUT OF THE ELECTROLYTE (SEALED BATTERIES) DENDRITE FORMATION OXYGEN CONSUMPTION AND FORMATION OF UNDER PRESSURE IN SEALED BATTERIES CORROSION OF THE POSITIVE GRID AND CONNECTOR LEAD, NEGATIVE TERMINALS AND INTERCELL CONNECTORS CORROSION OF THE POSITIVE GRID EFFECTS OF GRID CORROSION CORROSION OF THE POSITIVE TERMINALS AND GROUP BARS CORROSION OF THE NEGATIVE GRIDS, TERMINALS AND GROUP BARS EXPLOSION RISK CORROSION OF THE INTERCELL CONNECTORS OPERATING STRATEGIES AND DESIGN IMPLICATIONS FOR LEAD–ACID BATTERIES DETERMINATION OF BATTERY STATES STATE OF CHARGE CAPACITY OR STATE OF HEALTH SAFETY RISK OF EXPLOSION DUE TO OXYHYDROGEN GAS AQUEOUS SULFURIC ACID HANDLING LEAD BATTERY PROBLEMS LITHIUM-ION BATTERIES BASIC PRINCIPLE OVERVIEW OF ACTIVE MATERIALS OVERVIEW OF THE MOST IMPORTANT REACTIONS AT THE POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE ELECTRODES OVERCHARGING AND OVERDISCHARGING REACTIONS CATHODE MATERIALS ANODE MATERIALS IONIC CONDUCTIVITY OF THE ACTIVE MASSES ORGANIC SOLVENTS OTHER COMPONENTS CONDUCTING SALT OVERCHARGE PROTECTION WATER SCAVENGER REMOVAL OF HYDROGEN FLUORIDE ADDITIVES FOR THE FORMATION OF THE SEI FLAME RETARDANTS SOLID–ELECTROLYTE INTERFACE AND ITS SIGNIFICANCE FOR LITHIUM-ION BATTERIES CURRENT COLLECTORS PRODUCTION OF ELECTRODES SEPARATORS SAFETY MEASURES TYPES OF LITHIUM-ION BATTERIES CELL DESIGNS BUILDUP OF MODULES AND BATTERIES DIMENSIONING OF CELLS AND DESIGN DIFFERENCES FOR DIFFERENT APPLICATIONS DIMENSIONING OF CELLS ELECTRIC TRACTION BATTERIES CONSUMER BATTERIES CAPACITY SPECIFICATION AND CAPACITY MEASUREMENT MONITORING REQUIREMENTS INTERNAL RESISTANCE MEASUREMENT CHARGING CHARACTERISTICS FULL CHARGE SOLID-STATE DIFFUSION DURING DISCHARGING AND CHARGING CHARGING AT LOW TEMPERATURES FAST CHARGING GENERAL AGING EFFECTS AGING OF THE CATHODE AGING OF THE ANODE AGING OF THE ELECTROLYTE CORROSION OF AND DAMAGE TO THE SEPARATOR OTHER AGING PROCESSES INFLUENCE OF CALENDAR AND CYCLIC AGING AND MODELING AGING AND THE NEED FOR MODELING MODELING AND SIMULATION OF AGING QUANTITATIVE MODEL APPROACHES FOR THE DESCRIPTION OF AGING EFFECTS ON BATTERY PROPERTIES BATTERY MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS AND BATTERY OPERATING STRATEGIES GENERAL REQUIREMENTS FOR A BATTERY MANAGEMENT SYSTEM FOR LITHIUM-ION BATTERIES TECHNICAL IMPLEMENTATION BALANCING DATA ANALYSIS AND FAULT DETECTION DETERMINATION OF BATTERY STATES AND PARAMETERS CAPACITY, INTERNAL RESISTANCE OR STATE OF HEALTH GENERAL SAFETY ASPECTS DEFINITION OF SAFETY HAZARD AND SAFETY LEVELS SAFETY LIMITS ATTEMPTS TO DEFINE OF STATE OF SAFETY CAUSES AND TEST CONDITIONS FOR THERMAL RUNAWAY AND THERMAL PROPAGATION PROBLEMS AND FIELD SITUATION CAUSES OF A THERMAL RUNAWAY ABUSE TESTS ABUSE TESTS TO TRIGGER A THERMAL RUNAWAY AND THERMAL PROPAGATION THERMAL RUNAWAY THERMAL PROPAGATION SAFETY ENGINEERING FURTHER BATTERY PROBLEMS OTHER BATTERY TECHNOLOGIES ALKALINE NICKEL BATTERIES PHYSICAL-CHEMICAL PRINCIPLES CELL STRUCTURE CATHODE MATERIAL CELL ASSEMBLY BATTERY PROPERTIES AGING AND RELATED PROCESSES AND BATTERY PROPERTIES GENERAL AGING CHARACTERISTICS SELF-DISCHARGE MEMORY EFFECT AGING OF THE CATHODE DUE TO THE FORMATION OF ?-NIOOH AGING OF THE METAL HYDRIDE ANODE SAFETY ASPECTS OPTIMUM OPERATION OUTLOOK ZINC–AIR BATTERIES AGING BEHAVIOR SAFETY FEATURES REDOX-FLOW BATTERIES GENERAL AND PHYSICAL-CHEMICAL PRINCIPLES HIGH-TEMPERATURE BATTERIES CELL AND BATTERY STRUCTURE AGING OPTIMAL OPERATION LITHIUM SOLID-STATE ELECTROLYTE BATTERIES LITHIUM–SULFUR BATTERIES LITHIUM–AIR BATTERIES CURRENT STATUS SODIUM–AIR BATTERIES SODIUM-ION BATTERIES PHYSICOCHEMICAL PRINCIPLES ULTRACAPACITORS AND HYBRID BATTERIES HYBRID BATTERY CONCEPTS OVERVIEW OF APPLICATIONS GENERAL REMARKS USE OF BATTERY SIMULTANEOUS CONNECTION OF BATTERIES WITH A CHARGER AND LOADS CONNECTION OF BATTERIES TO EITHER CHARGER OR LOAD STATE OF CHARGE AND REMAINING CAPACITY EFFICIENCY EFFICIENCY UNDER CYCLIC LOAD STANDBY LOSSES RELEVANCE OF THE EFFICIENCY OF THE BATTERY SAFETY AND ENVIRONMENTALLY FRIENDLY HANDLING OF BATTERIES SUBDIVISION INTO APPLICATION AREAS STARTER BATTERIES FOR VEHICLES (STARTING, LIGHTING, IGNITION, SLI) BATTERIES FOR ELECTROMOBILITY BATTERIES FOR INDUSTRIAL TRUCKS FOR MATERIAL HANDLING STATIONARY APPLICATIONS BATTERIES FOR PORTABLE DEVICES (TOOLS, COMMUNICATION, ETC ) STARTER BATTERIES FOR VEHICLES (STARTING, LIGHTING, IGNITION — SLI) DEFINITION REQUIREMENTS FOR THE BATTERY PROVISION OF POWER FOR STARTING SUPPLY OF THE VEHICLE ELECTRICAL SYSTEM IGNITION RECHARGING WEIGHT, INSTALLATION SPACE, AND LOCATION CHOICE OF BATTERY TECHNOLOGY OPERATION AND DESIGN OPERATION DESIGN OPTIONS MONITORING OF THE BATTERY OTHER REFERENCE TARGET STATE OF CHARGE AND RANGE OF STATE OF CHARGE ENERGY CONTENT, ENERGY THROUGHPUT, AND CURRENT LIFETIME CHARGING PROCESSES STRUCTURE OF THE BATTERY SYSTEM DESIGN AND OPERATION MONITORING THE BATTERY OTHER ASPECTS TRACTION BATTERIES FOR MATERIAL HANDLING INDUSTRIAL TRUCKS FOR MATERIAL HANDLING REQUIREMENTS VEHICLES WITH LOW DAILY OPERATING TIME INTENSIVELY USED VEHICLES OPERATION OF DRIVERLESS TRANSPORT VEHICLES OR AUTOMATED GUIDED VEHICLES (AGV) MONITORING BATTERIES SMALL TRACTION BATTERIES STATIONARY APPLICATIONS OF BATTERIES STANDBY PARALLEL OPERATION FOR EMERGENCY POWER SUPPLY AND UPS SYSTEMS SIZING OF BATTERIES FLOAT CHARGE CURRENT DISCHARGE CHARACTERISTICS OTHER INFORMATION DIESEL START FOR EMERGENCY POWER SUPPLY SYSTEMS MAINTENANCE AND FAULT DIAGNOSIS BATTERIES FOR BALANCING ELECTRICITY DEMAND AND SUPPLY OVER TIME APPLICATION GROUPS OPERATING STRATEGY MONITORING BATTERIES FOR STABILIZING THE ENERGY SUPPLY SYSTEM EXAMPLES OF LARGE BATTERY STORAGE SYSTEMS IN THE WORLD AND EVALUATION BATTERIES FOR PORTABLE APPLICATIONS MONITORING THE BATTERIES ENERGY SUPPLY IN GENERAL ENERGY STORAGE SYSTEMS ARE AN OPTION FOR THE TECHNICAL AND ECONOMIC OPTIMIZATION OF AN ENERGY SUPPLY SYSTEM BECAUSE THEY ALLOW ENERGY GENERATION1 TO BE QUICKLY AND EFFICIENTLY ADAPTED TO ENERGY CONSUMPTION WITHOUT ENERGY STORAGE SYSTEMS THAT CAN BOTH STORE AND RELEASE ENERGY, GENERATION AND CONSUMPTION UNITS WOULD ALWAYS HAVE TO ADAPT TO EACH OTHER WITH VERY HIGH DYNAMICS FAST RESPONSE TIMES ARE OFTEN NOT POSSIBLE OR ONLY POSSIBLE AT GREAT EXPENSE ENERGY STORAGE SYSTEMS ALSO SERVE AS AN ENERGY SOURCE FOR TECHNICAL SYSTEMS THAT DO NOT HAVE THEIR OWN ENERGY SUPPLY FROM PRIMARY ENERGY SOURCES, AS WELL AS FOR STARTING UP SYSTEMS THAT IN MOST CASES CANNOT BE STARTED WITHOUT THE PROVISION OF ELECTRICAL ENERGY FROM AN ENERGY STORAGE SYSTEM OR THE ELECTRICAL GRID 1 THE TERMS “ENERGY PRODUCTION” AND “ENERGY CONSUMPTION” CORRESPOND TO COMMON USAGE AND ARE THEREFORE USED HERE IN THE LITERAL SENSE OF THE TERMS, OF COURSE, ENERGY CANNOT BE GENERATED AND CONSUMED, BUT ONLY CONVERTED COMPETES WITH MANY TECHNICAL ALTERNATIVES TO ENSURE THE REQUIRED FUNCTIONS IN ADDI- TION TO HIGHLY DYNAMIC GENERATION UNITS, WHICH, UNLIKE CONVENTIONAL THERMAL POWER PLANTS, CAN ADAPT THEIR POWER OUTPUT VERY QUICKLY TO DEMAND, ALTERNATIVES FOR QUICKLY BALANCING POWER GENERATION AND CONSUMPTION ARE PRIMARILY LOAD MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS AND SWITCHABLE LOADS, IN PARTICULAR HEAT GENERATORS (POWER-TO-HEAT) ELECTRICITY FROM A PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEM THAT IS NOT CONSUMED IMMEDIATELY AT THE SITE OF INSTALLATION CAN BE USED LOCALLY OR, FOR EXAMPLE, IT IS TO BE ?STORED IN A BATTERY, ?USED AS THERMAL ENERGY FOR SPACE HEATING OR HOT WATER SUPPLY VIA AN ELECTRICALLY OPERATED HEATING CARTRIDGE, 2 IN FIGURE 1 1, IT SHOULD BE NOTED THAT STORAGE FACILITIES FOR MATERIALS (TANKS FOR PROCESSED ENERGY SOURCES) ARE ONLY REFERRED TO AS ENERGY STORAGE FACILITIES IF THEY ARE PRODUCED USING ELECTRICITY THAT IS NOT USED DIRECTLY FOR ENERGY SERVICES WITHOUT THIS CONCEPTUAL DIFFERENTIATION, CRUDE OIL, HEATING OIL, OR GASOLINE TANKS AND UNDERGROUND SALT CAVERNS FOR FOSSIL FUELS WOULD OTHERWISE ALSO HAVE TO BE REFERRED TO AS ENERGY STORAGE FACILITIES 1 2 ELECTROCHEMICAL AND NON-ELECTROCHEMICAL ENERGY TECHNOLOGIES DOUBLE-LAYER CAPACITORS (ULTRACAPACITORS, ELECTROLYTIC CAPACITORS, ETC ) CHEMICAL ENERGY E = N?RG HYDROGEN STORAGE THERMAL ENERGY E = CI?T HOT WATER TANK ELECTROCHEMICAL ENERGY E = ?UIDT BATTERIES EXPLANATION OF SYMBOLS: M: MASS, G: GRAVITY CONSTANT, H: HEIGHT, P: PRESSURE, V: VOLUME, J: MOMENT OF INERTIA, ??: ROTATIONAL SPEED, L: INDUCTANCE, I: CURRENT, C: CAPACITANCE (IN FARAD), U: VOLTAGE, N: AMOUNT OF SUBSTANCE, ?RG: FREE ENTHALPY OF REACTION, CI: HEAT CAPACITY OF SUBSTANCE I, ?T: TEMPERATURE DIFFERENCE, T: DISCHARGE TIME FLYWHEELS THE ENERGY CONTENT STORED IN FLYWHEELS DEPENDS ON THE SQUARE OF THE ROTATIONAL SPEED AND IS PROPORTIONAL TO THE MOMENT OF INERTIA SLOWLY ROTATING FLYWHEELS (WITH UP TO APPROX 4000 RPM) ARE COMMERCIAL PRODUCTS FOR UNINTERRUPTIBLE POWER SUPPLY (UPS) SYSTEMS WITH AN OUTPUT OF 1 6 MW FOR 15 SECONDS (POWERBRIDGE, PILLER GMBH), CORRESPONDING TO 6 7 KWH ENERGY CONTENT, OF WHICH ONLY 75% CAN BE TECHNICALLY 3 IN THIS TEXTBOOK, THE TERM “ULTRACAPACITOR” OR “SUPERCAPACITOR” IS ALWAYS USED FOR THIS CLASS OF ENERGY STORAGE TO AVOID CONFUSION, THE TERM “DOUBLE-LAYER CAPACITOR” ALWAYS REFERS TO THE ELECTRODE/ELECTROLYTE INTERFACE 1 3 BASIC PROPERTIES OF BATTERIES: SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCES