A TEXT-BOOK OF MEDICAL CHEMISTRY AND TOXICOLOGY
Introduction 1 11 This second edition 1 12 Intent 1 13 Wherefrom; why; audience 2 21 An explain book 2 22 Gedankenexperiment 3 23 Ink analysis 4 24 View of science 5 31 Not encyclopaedic 6 32 SI and CAS 6 41 Bias 6 42 Accuracy attempted 9 43 Additional bias 10 51 On to Chapter 1 10 Notes 11 Chapter 1 Science and law 23 11 Forensic science 23 111 Truth 23 112 Forensic science 24 12 Who decides 26 13 Justice and failed justice 27 14 Legal systems 29 141 Structure 29 142 Categories of law mainly considered here 32 143 Some other categories – for mention here 34 15 The law of evidence 45 151 Evidence in court 45 152 Forensic expert witnesses 46 153 Police as forensic experts in Toronto drug cases 48 16 Legislative process – policymaking 50 17 Advocacy 51 171 Lawyers 51 172 Forensic scientists 52 173 Dual role 52 174 Who talks to whom and when 53 18 US qui tam 53 19 Toxicology 54 191 Acute, chronic and latent toxicology 54 192 Evaluation: LD50 55 193 Workplace health and exposure limits 56 110 Hazards of found chemicals 57 Notes 58 Chapter 2 Essential concepts of forensic science 91 21 Essential concepts and propositions 91 211 Locard’s principle 91 212 Forensic chemistry defined 93 213 Analytical chemistry 94 214 Science and chemistry 96 215 Science – good, bad and junk 97 22 Forensics – recent historical 98 23 The essential propositions expanded 99 231 What it is 99 232 How much 103 233 Error 104 234 When 104 235 What happened 104 Notes 105 Chapter 3 Analytical approach 128 31 Analytical chemistry 128 311 Measurement 128 312 What the measurement means 129 313 Counting measurement 130 314 Changed circumstances 131 32 The things of evidential interest 131 33 What forensic aspects to concentrate on 133 34 Sample handling 133 35 Site and lab work 135 351 Initial observations 135 352 Sample selection 136 353 Sample selection – Pb in humans 138 354 Screening tests 139 355 Analytical/instrumental methods 140 36 Forensic conclusions 142 37 Analysis too extensive? – Too sensitive – or not enough? 142 371 Too extensive? 142 372 Too sensitive – or not enough? 144 373 Summary 145 Notes 146 Chapter 4 Uniqueness of matter 161 41 Uniqueness of matter and chemical science 162 411 Questions about the uniqueness of matter 162 412 Chemical science 162 42 Atoms, molecules, etc 163 421 Atoms, molecules, etc – hierarchy 163 422 Energy relationships 164 423 Periodic table 165 43 Molecules 167 44 Molecular structure 168 45 Subtle variations 170 451 Isomers, congeners, etc 170 452 Chirality 172 453 Isotopes 175 454 Polymers 176 455 Hydration of the chemical substance 176 456 Moisture content of the whole package: CH3–CH2–OH 177 457 Halide ions that balance charge 177 458 Virus mutations 178 459 Microparticles 178 4510 Sampling plan 179 4511 Forensic chemistry choices 179 46 Chemical names – CAS 179 47 Identification of a molecule by its characteristics 183 48 Mixtures – mixture profile 184 481 Mixture profile – glycol example 185 482 Occurrence probability – DNA, fingerprints 187 483 Occurrence probability – ink example 187 49 Reactions in progress 189 Notes 190 Chapter 5 Site and lab procedure, and documentation 213 51 To try to assure credibility – lab practices 213 52 Site, lab and samples 214 521 Site examination 214 522 General lab set-up 217 523 Integrity of sample and analysis process 217 53 Documentation 217 531 Lab’s core documents and standard operating procedures 218 532 The scientific literature 220 533 Tags and receipts 221 534 Lab notebook 222 535 Reference documents 226 536 Spectra and other instrumental print-outs 227 537 Report 227 538 Quality 227 539 Publication or other public access 227 5310 Record and sample retention 228 5311 Security 229 54 Lab organization 229 541 Legal/budgetary 229 542 Organization and leadership responsibility 230 543 Personnel – scientific qualification 231 55 Ethics 232 56 Quality assurance 232 57 Other responsibilities 232 571 Environmental: waste management 233 572 Workplace health and safety 233 573 Hazard communication: WHMIS 233 574 Labour relations and employee rights 234 575 Consumer protection 234 58 Transparency and opaqueness of government and other institutional process – secrecy 234 581 Confidential versus public 234 582 Temporary allowance 235 583 Manhattan Engineer District 236 Notes 237 Chapter 6 Analysis, instrumentation and methods 257 61 Introduction 258 611 Fundamentals – essential concepts 258 612 Most important and commonly used methods 259 62 UV = ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy 260 621 Theory 260 622 To identify molecules – limited 267 623 Instrumentation 268 624 Concentration measurements 269 63 IR = infrared spectroscopy 270 631 Theory 271 632 To identify molecules – almost uniquely 271 633 Instrumentation 272 634 Concentration measurements 273 64 TLC = thin layer chromatography 273 641 Theory 273 642 To identify molecules – limited 274 643 Set-up 274 65 GC = gas chromatography 275 651 Theory 275 652 To identify molecules – limited 276 653 Set-up 276 654 Quantity measurement 277 66 MS = mass spectroscopy 277 661 Theory 277 662 To identify molecules – almost uniquely 281 663 Instrumentation 281 67 GC-MS = gas chromatography-mass spectroscopy 281 68 HPLC = high-performance liquid chromatography 282 69 Other methods (alphabetically) 282 610 Atomic absorption and emission spectroscopy 284 611 Boiling and melting point determination: temperature measurement to assist in identifying molecules 285 612 Centrifugal force measurement 286 613 Carbon dioxide (CO2) measurement 286 614 Dogs 286 615 Electron microscopy 287 616 Electrophoresis: DNA analysis 287 617 Electron spin resonance 289 618 Fluorescence and phosphorescence spectroscopy 289 6181 Theory 289 6182 To identify molecules – limited 291 6183 Instrumentation 291 6184 Application to forensic science 293 619 Length measurement – tire skid 294 620 Mass measurement 294 6201 Some further comment to try to explain about the above-requested data 297 621 Metal detection 298 622 Microscopy – optical and photo-microscopy 299 623 Microwave spectroscopy 299 624 Neutron activation analysis 299 625 NMR = nuclear magnetic resonance 299 626 Occult and astrology 300 627 Photography 301 628 Radar location of things 304 629 Radioactivity 304 630 Radiofrequency tags 305 631 Raman spectroscopy 305 632 Refractive index 305 633 Reflectance and colour 306 6331 Reflectance spectroscopy 306 6332 Visible light colour 307 634 Thermoluminescence analysis 308 635 Viscosity measurement 309 636 Wet chemistry – screening tests 309 637 X-ray crystallography 309 Notes 310 Chapter 7 When 359 71 When – time: chemical kinetics 359 72 Fundamentals of chemical kinetics 360 73 Carbon-14 dating 362 74 About complex systems – empirically 365 741 Age of bread 365 742 Pathology of time of death 366 75 Examples 366 76 Chemical markers of when (other than chemical kinetics) 367 77 Other than chemical markers of when 368 78 Error 369 Notes 369 Chapter 8 Error 380 81 Error: qualitative and quantitative 381 82 Kinds of error: systematic errors – bias 382 83 Kinds of error: statistical errors – random 383 84 If theory is wrong or method insufficient 389 841 If theory is wrong 389 842 If method is insufficient 390 85 Graphical representation 390 851 Cartesian 390 852 Straight line: y = m × x + b 391 853 Error representation 392 854 Further about graphical representation 395 86 Blunder 395 87 Ethical issues 397 871 Ethics 397 872 Ethics and economy 399 873 Ethical issues – forensic personnel 400 874 Ethical behaviour of the state 400 88 Fraud 401 89 Near-fraud 402 810 How to try to limit and cope with error 403 8101 Error control 403 811 Quality assurance 403 8111 Introduction 403 8112 ISO 9002 ISO/IEC 17025:2005 404 8113 Public 405 8114 Peer review 406 8115 Audits and scrutiny 408 8116 Accreditation 408 8117 Document trail 408 8118 Method validation 408 812 Replication and multiple-blind check samples 409 813 Some general advice 412 814 Critical appraisal – nullius in verba 412 Notes 413 Chapter 9 Report 436 91 Report 436 92 Report parts 441 921 Title, … 441 922 Signature 442 923 For example – title 444 93 Abstract 444 94 Contents outline 445 95 Problem to be addressed: blind? 445 96 Theory of the human story being investigated 446 97 Science theory 446 98 Items for analysis 447 99 Equipment and reagents 447 910 Analysis 448 911 Error statement 448 912 SOPs, … 449 913 Conclusion 449 914 Quality assurance 451 915 Environmental and workplace health and safety 451 916 Legal and disclaimer 451 917 Control of distribution: public document? Confidential? Freedom of information 453 918 Data archival 453 919 Finance: US Qui tam 454 920 Clarity and quality of writing 454 921 Language 454 922 Format and short form 455 9221 Format 455 9222 Short form 455 Notes 456 Chapter 10 Essay – biased opinion – polemic: Canada Controlled Drugs & Substances Act – ipse dixit 475 101 War on drugs 477 102 Quest for a proper scientific report 478 103 Bad science – ipse dixit 481 104 ISO out of compliance? and Catch-22 483 1041 ISO out of compliance? 483 1042 Catch-22 484 105 Unethical science 485 106 Lawyers, judges and parliamentarians 485 107 Recommendations: repeal CD&S Act s 51 because it is anti-science – don’t allow Catch-22 486 108 Some further biased opinion – raising a difficult question 487 Appendix Law case – Old City Hall, Toronto, 2018 488 Notes 497 Chapter 11 Essay – biased opinion – polemic: Canada Criminal Code – driving impaired by drug – science? 512 111 Forensic question 512 112 Newly enforced law 513 113 Science literature 514 114 How to determine <<ability to drive>> and <<impairment>>? 515 115 Bad science 516 116 DRE opinion 517 117 Result of the DRE opinion 518 118 Criticisms of the DRE process 519 119 Parliament and government, and bad science – a tradition 521 1110 Most-serious policy issues 521 1111 Some further biased opinion – raising a difficult question 522 Notes 523