PRACTICAL MEDICAL CHEMISTRY FOR PHYSICIANS AND STUDENTS
SECTION ONE: CELL BIOLOGY 1 CELL AND CELL ORGANELLES: CHEMISTRY AND FUNCTIONS • TYPES OF CELLS 3 • MITOCHONDRIAL MEMBRANES 2 BIOLOGICAL MEMBRANES: STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION • CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF THE MEMBRANES 10 • FUNCTIONS: TRANSPORT SYSTEM SECTION TWO: CHEMISTRY OF BIOMOLECULES 3 CHEMISTRY OF CARBOHYDRATES • CARBOHYDRATES 23 • CLASSIFICATION 23 • CYCLIC STRUCTURES 25 • MUTAROTATION 25 • MONOSACCHARIDES • IMPORTANT PROPERTIES OF MONOSACCHARIDES 28 • OTHER SUGAR DERIVATIVES OF BIOMEDICAL IMPORTANCE • DISACCHARIDES 33 • OLIGOSACCHARIDES 35 • POLYSACCHARIDES 35 • HETEROPOLYSACCHARIDES (HETEROGLYCANS) MUCOPOLYSACCHARIDES (MPS) 37 • PROTEOGLYCANS—CHEMISTRY AND FUNCTIONS 4 CHEMISTRY OF LIPIDS • LIPIDS 45 • CLASSIFICATION OF LIPIDS 46 • DERIVED LIPIDS 46 • ESSENTIAL FATTY ACIDS 48 • ALCOHOLS • CHOLESTEROL 50 • OTHER STEROLS OF BIOLOGICAL IMPORTANCE 52 • SIMPLE LIPIDS 52 • IDENTIFICATION OF FATS AND OILS 54 • COMPOUND LIPIDS 55 • GLYCOLIPIDS 5 PROSTAGLANDINS—CHEMISTRY AND FUNCTIONS • PROSTAGLANDINS 66 • METABOLISM OF PROSTAGLANDINS 67 • FUNCTIONS OF PROSTAGLANDINS • CHEMISTRY AND FUNCTIONS OF PROSTACYCLINS AND THROMBOXANES 71 • LEUCOTRIENES-LTS 72 • LIPOXINS 6 CHEMISTRY OF PROTEINS AND AMINO ACIDS • AMINO ACIDS 77 • PROTEINS 83 • GENERAL PROPERTIES OF PROTEINS 86 • STRUCTURAL ORGANISATION OF PROTEINS • DENATURATION OF PROTEINS 92 • AMINOACIDURIAS 7 PLASMA PROTEINS—CHEMISTRY AND FUNCTIONS • PLASMA PROTEINS 97 • CHARACTERISTICS OF INDIVIDUAL PLASMA PROTEINS 98 • OTHER PROTEINS OF CLINICAL INTEREST • FUNCTIONS OF PLASMA PROTEINS 105 • GENETIC DEFICIENCIES OF PLASMA PROTEINS 107 • PROTEINURIA 8 IMMUNOGLOBULINS—CHEMISTRY AND FUNCTIONS • PROPERTIES OF INDIVIDUAL IMMUNOGLOBULINS 111 • STRUCTURE AND CHEMISTRY OF IMMUNOGLOBULINS—MODEL OF IG MOLECULE 115 • POLYCLONAL VS MONOCLONAL ANTIBODY: HYBRIDOMA 9 CHEMISTRY OF ENZYMES • NOMENCLATURE AND CLASSIFICATION OF ENZYMES 123 • SPECIFICITY OF ENZYMES 123 • MECHANISM OF ENZYME ACTION 124 • MODELS OF ENZYME-SUBSTRATE COMPLEX FORMATION 124 • KINETIC PROPERTIES OF ENZYMES • FACTORS AFFECTING ENZYME ACTION 126 • ENZYME INHIBITION 10 BIOLOGICAL OXIDATION • REDOX POTENTIAL AND FREE ENERGY 138 • MITOCHONDRIAL ELECTRON TRANSPORT CHAIN 138 • DETAIL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF ELECTRON TRANSPORT CHAIN (ETC) 139 • INHIBITORS OF ELECTRON TRANSPORT CHAIN • OXIDATIVE PHOSPHORYLATION 143 • UNCOUPLERS OF OXIDATIVE PHOSPHORYLATION 11 CHEMISTRY OF HAEMOGLOBIN AND HAEMOGLOBINOPATHIES • HAEMOGLOBIN 150 • STRUCTURE OF HB 150 • VARIETIES OF NORMAL HUMAN HAEMOGLOBIN 151 • DERIVATIVES OF HAEMOGLOBIN 152 • COMBINATION OF HAEMOGLOBIN WITH GASES 155 • ABNORMAL HAEMOGLOBINS AND HAEMOGLOBINOPATHIES 157 • ABNORMAL HAEMOGLOBINS 157 • HAEMOGLOBINOPATHIES 157 • ABNORMAL HAEMOGLOBINS WHICH PRODUCE METHAEMOGLOBINEMIA 159 • ABNORMAL HAEMOGLOBINS ASSOCIATED WITH HIGH O2-AFFINITY 159 • ABNORMAL HB WHICH INTERFERES WITH M-RNA FORMATION 159 • THALASSAEMIAS CONTENTS 12 VITAMINS • FAT-SOLUBLE VITAMINS 163 • FUNCTIONS OF VITAMIN A 164 • VITAMIN D 167 • FUNCTIONS OF VITAMIN D • VITAMIN E (TOCOPHEROLS) 171 • FUNCTIONS OF VITAMIN E 171 • FUNCTIONS OF VITAMIN K 173 • WATER-SOLUBLE VITAMINS 174 • METABOLIC ROLE AND FUNCTIONS 175 • B-COMPLEX VITAMINS 177 • RIBOFLAVIN (VITAMIN B2) (CYANOCOBALAMINE) 196 • INOSITOL 13 CHEMISTRY OF RESPIRATION AND FREE RADICALS • TRANSPORT OF OXYGEN 205 • CLINICAL IMPORTANCE OF OXYGEN 206 • TRANSPORT OF CARBON DIOXIDE 207 • FREE RADICALS SECTION THREE: MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 14 CHEMISTRY OF NUCLEOTIDES • NUCLEOPROTEINS 215 • NUCLEOSIDES 218 • NUCLEOTIDES 218 • NUCLEOTIDES AND NUCLEOSIDES OF BIOLOGICAL IMPORTANCE 220 • CYCLIC NUCLEOTIDES 15 METABOLISM OF PURINES AND PYRIMIDINES • CATABOLISM OF PYRIMIDINES 228 • METABOLISM OF PURINES 229 • SALVAGE PATHWAYS FOR PURINE AND PYRIMIDINE BASES 232 • CATABOLISM OF PURINES 233 • URIC ACID METABOLISM AND CLINICAL DISORDERS OF PURINE AND PYRIMIDINE METABOLISM 16 CHEMISTRY OF NUCLEIC ACIDS, DNA REPLICATION AND DNA REPAIR • NUCLEIC ACIDS 239 • JUNK DNA 243 • RIBONUCLEIC ACID (RNA) 244 • SMALL RNAS 246 • TYPES • REPLICATION OF DNA 250 • REPLICATION AND ITS IMPORTANCE 250 • DNA REPAIR MECHANISMS 17 PROTEIN SYNTHESIS, GENE EXPRESSION AND RECOMBINANT DNA • TRANSCRIPTION 260 • GENETIC CODE 263 • TRANSLATION OF M-RNA (PROTEIN SYNTHESIS) 264 • CHAPERONES: PROTEINS THAT PREVENT FAULTY FOLDING 269 • GENE EXPRESSION AND REGULATION 271 • MUTATION • RECOMBINANT DNA TECHNOLOGY 18 POLYMERASE CHAIN REACTION (PCR) AND REAL-TIME PCR • VARIOUS TYPES OF PCR 288 • ADVANTAGES OF REAL-TIME PCR 289 • REAL-TIME REPORTERS 289 • SYBR® GREEN • REAL-TIME REPORTERS FOR MULTIPLEX PCR 290 • INVESTING IN THE REAL-TIME TECHNIQUE 291 • VIRAL QUANTITATION • LIMITATIONS OF REAL-TIME PCR 19 HUMAN GENOME PROJECT • ANNOUNCEMENT OF DRAFT SEQUENCE OF HUMAN GENOME 293 • APPROACHES OF GENOME SEQUENCING BY TWO GROUPS 294 • GENOME MAPPING 294 • BENEFITS OF THE PROJECT 295 • PROJECT GOALS AND COMPLETION DATES • ADDITIONAL BENEFITS 296 • THE NEXT STEP: FUNCTIONAL GENOMICS 20 GENE THERAPY • DISEASES OF GENETIC ORIGIN 298 • ALTERED GENES 299 • WHAT IS GENE THERAPY? 299 • HOW DOES GENE THERAPY WORK? 300 • METHODS OF INSERTING GENETIC MATERIAL INTO HUMAN CHROMOSOMES 300 • GENE TRANSFER VEHICLE • VIRAL VECTORS FOR GENE THERAPY 301 • NON-VIRAL VECTORS: LIPOSOMES 302 • GENE THERAPY FOR HAEMATOPOIETIC DERIVED DISEASES 302 • GENE SILENCING 303 • RNA INTERFERENCE 303 • ANTISENSE 304 • SIRNA AS ANTIVIRAL AGENT 304 • GERMLINE GENE THERAPY 305 • WHAT IS THE CURRENT STATUS OF GENE THERAPY RESEARCH? • WHAT FACTORS HAVE KEPT GENE THERAPY FROM BECOMING AN EFFECTIVE TREATMENT FOR GENETIC DISEASE? • WHAT ARE SOME OF THE ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR USING GENE THERAPY? 307 • FUTURE GENE THERAPY • NEW APPROACHES TO GENE THERAPY 308 • HOW TO DEAL WITH A DOMINANT NEGATIVE? 308 • USE OF RIBOZYMES TECHNOLOGY 21 BIOCHEMISTRY OF CHOLERA—VIBRIO TOXINS, PATHOGENESIS • CHOLERA 310 • HISTORY AND SPREAD OF EPIDEMIC CHOLERA 311 • ANTIGENIC VARIATION AND LPS STRUCTURE IN VIBRIO CHOLERAE 312 • ANTIGENIC DETERMINANTS OF VIBRIO CHOLERAE 312 • CHOLERA TOXIN 312 • STRUCTURE OF CHOLERA TOXIN • ENZYMATIC REACTION 313 • CHEMISTRY OF COLONISATION OF THE SMALL INTESTINE 313 • GENETIC ORGANISATION AND REGULATION OF VIRULENCE FACTORS IN VIBRIO CHOLERAE 314 • PATHOGENESIS SECTION FOUR: METABOLISM 22 DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION OF CARBOHYDRATES • DIGESTION OF CARBOHYDRATES 320 • ABSORPTION OF CARBOHYDRATES 320 • DEFECTS IN DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION OF CARBOHYDRATES (INCLUDING INHERITED DISORDERS) 23 METABOLISM OF CARBOHYDRATES • GLYCOLYSIS 327 • ENERGY YIELD PER GLUCOSE MOLECULE OXIDATION 331 • PECULIARITIES OF GLUCOSE OXIDATION BY RB CELLS AND RAPOPORT-LUEBERING SHUNT 333 • FORMATION AND FATE OF PYRUVIC ACID 334 • CITRIC ACID CYCLE • TCA CYCLE IS CALLED AMPHIBOLIC IN NATURE—WHY? 341 • PASTEUR EFFECT 343 • SHUTTLE SYSTEMS • METABOLISM OF GLYCOGEN 346 • GLYCOGENESIS 347 • GLYCOGENOLYSIS 349 • HEXOSE MONOPHOSPHATE (HMP) SHUNT 354 • METABOLIC SIGNIFICANCE OF HMP SHUNT 358 • URONIC ACID PATHWAY 360 • CLINICAL IMPORTANCE OF URONIC ACID PATHWAY 362 • FUNCTIONS OF GLUCURONIC ACID 363 • GLUCONEOGENESIS 363 • METABOLIC PATHWAYS INVOLVED IN GLUCONEOGENESIS 364 • REGULATION OF GLUCONEOGENESIS 368 • FATES OF LACTIC ACID IN THE BODY • METABOLISM OF GALACTOSE 369 • METABOLISM OF FRUCTOSE 372 • REGULATION OF BLOOD GLUCOSE (HOMEOSTASIS) • BLOOD SUGAR LEVEL AND ITS CLINICAL SIGNIFICANCE 377 • GLYCOSURIA 377 • DIABETES MELLITUS 379 • GLUCOSE TOLERANCE TEST (GTT) 24 DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION OF LIPIDS • DIGESTION OF LIPIDS 392 • ABSORPTION OF LIPIDS 25 METABOLISM OF LIPIDS • PLASMA LIPIDS 399 • FATTY ACID SYNTHESIS 414 • METABOLISM OF ACYL GLYCEROLS AND SPHINGOLIPIDS • BIOSYNTHESIS OF PHOSPHOLIPIDS 420 • KETOSIS 425 • KETONE BODY FORMATION IN LIVER (KETOGENESIS) • METABOLISM OF CHOLESTEROL 431 • CONSIDERATION OF OTHER FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE CHOLESTEROL LEVEL IN BLOOD • FATE OF CHOLESTEROL 437 • BILE ACID 438 • PATHOLOGICAL VARIATIONS OF SERUM CHOLESTEROL 440 • RELATION OF CHOLESTEROL AND OTHER LIPIDS AS RISK FACTOR IN CORONARY HEART DISEASE (CHD) 441 • FORMATION AND FATE OF “ACTIVE” ACETATE (ACETYL-COA) (TWO CARBON METABOLISM) 441 • PLASMA LIPOPROTEINS AND METABOLISM • TYPES OF APOPROTEINS PRESENT IN VARIOUS LIPOPROTEIN FRACTIONS (CHEMISTRY OF APOPROTEINS) • ATHEROSCLEROSIS 453 • PLASMA LIPOPROTEINS AND ATHEROSCLEROSIS 455 • FATTY LIVER 457 • TYPES OF FATTY LIVER 457 • BIOCHEMICAL MECHANISMS OF SOME AGENTS 26 DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION OF PROTEINS • DIGESTION OF PROTEINS 463 • DIGESTION IN SMALL INTESTINE 466 • ABSORPTION OF AMINO ACIDS 27 METABOLISM OF PROTEINS AND AMINO ACIDS • AMINO ACID POOL 471 • NITROGEN BALANCE 472 • ESSENTIAL AMINO ACIDS 472 • DISSIMILATION OF AMINO ACIDS (N-CATABOLISM OF AMINO ACIDS) 473 • TRANSAMINATION 474 • DEAMINATION 475 • TRANSDEAMINATION (DEAMINATION OF L-GLUTAMIC ACID) 477 • NH3 TRANSPORT 477 • UREA FORMATION (KREBS-HENSELEIT CYCLE) 479 • CLINICAL SIGNIFICANCE OF UREA 481 • GLUCOSE-ALANINE CYCLE 483 • FATE OF CARBAMOYL-P 483 • GLUTAMINE FORMATION AND FUNCTIONS 483 • FUNCTIONS OF GLUTAMINE 485 • DECARBOXYLATION REACTION AND BIOGENIC AMINES 490 • GABA SHUNT 493 • POLYAMINE SYNTHESIS INHIBITOR 495 • METABOLISM OF INDIVIDUAL AMINO ACIDS 495 • METABOLIC ROLE OF METHIONINE 505 • GLUTATHIONE—CHEMISTRY AND FUNCTIONS 509 • METABOLISM OF OTHER AMINO ACIDS • SERINE 513 • HISTIDINE 514 • ?-ALANINE 515 • TRYPTOPHAN 516 • SEROTONIN 519 • MELATONIN 520 • ROLE OF NITRIC OXIDE 520 • METABOLISM OF CREATINE 28 INTEGRATION OF METABOLISM OF CARBOHYDRATES, LIPIDS AND PROTEINS • INTERCONVERSION BETWEEN THE THREE PRINCIPAL COMPONENTS 29 METABOLISM IN STARVATION • EXPERIMENTAL OBSERVATIONS 535 • EFFECTS ON METABOLISM 536 • CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM 536 • LIPID METABOLISM 536 • PROTEIN METABOLISM 538 • WATER AND MINERAL METABOLISM 30 PORPHYRINS AND PORPHYRIAS (SYNTHESIS OF HAEM) • PORPHYRINS 540 • BIOSYNTHESIS OF PORPHYRINS 541 • REGULATORY INFLUENCES AND EFFECTS OF INHIBITORS • SYNTHESIS OF HAEMOGLOBIN 31 HAEM CATABOLISM • SOURCES OF BILIRUBIN 549 • TRANSPORT OF BILIRUBIN 550 • CONJUGATION OF BILIRUBIN WITH D-GLUCURONIC ACID IN LIVER CELLS 551 • SECRETION OF BILIRUBIN IN THE BILE 551 • EXCRETION OF BILE PIGMENTS 32 DETOXICATION • WHAT IS DETOXICATION? 555 • MECHANISM OF DETOXICATION 33 HORMONES—CHEMISTRY, MECHANISM OF ACTION AND METABOLIC ROLE • HORMONES 563 • MECHANISM OF ACTION OF HORMONES 564 • REGULATION OF HORMONE SECRETION 566 • PITUITARY HORMONES 566 • HORMONES OF THE ANTERIOR PITUITARY 567 • GROWTH HORMONE (SOMATOTROPIN) 567 • PITUITARY TROPIC HORMONES 568 • HORMONE OF MIDDLE LOBE OF PITUITARY 570 • HORMONES OF POSTERIOR PITUITARY LOBE • THYROID GLAND AND ITS HORMONES 571 • THYROID HORMONES 571 • MECHANISM OF ACTION OF THYROID HORMONES 575 • METABOLIC ROLE OF THYROID HORMONES 576 • PARATHYROID GLANDS AND THEIR HORMONES • PARATHORMONE (PTH) 578 • CALCITONIN 580 • INSULIN 581 • MECHANISM OF ACTION OF INSULIN 583 • METABOLIC ROLE OF INSULIN 584 • GLUCAGON HYPERGLYCAEMIC-GLYCOGENOLYTIC FACTOR (HGF) 587 • SOMATOSTATIN 588 • ADRENAL STEROID HORMONES 589 • GLUCOCORTICOIDS 590 • MECHANISM OF ACTION 591 • METABOLIC ROLE OF GLUCOCORTICOIDS • MINERALO-CORTICOIDS 594 • METABOLIC ROLE OF ALDOSTERONE 595 • RENIN-ANGIOTENSIN SYSTEM 596 • ADRENAL MEDULLARY HORMONES 597 • METABOLIC ROLE OF CATECHOLAMINES 598 • GONADAL HORMONES 599 • ANDROGENS • METABOLIC ROLE 601 • FEMALE SEX HORMONES 601 • ESTROGENS 601 • METABOLIC ROLE 603 • PROGESTATIONAL HORMONES: (LUTEAL HORMONES) 603 • METABOLIC ROLE 604 • RELAXIN 604 • PLACENTAL HORMONES 34 METABOLISM OF MINERALS AND TRACE ELEMENTS • SODIUM 608 • SODIUM PUMP 609 • POTASSIUM 610 • CHLORINE 612 • CALCIUM 612 • PHOSPHORUS • SULPHUR 615 • IRON 616 • COPPER 622 • MAGNESIUM 624 • FLUORINE 625 • ZINC 626 • MANGANESE • CHROMIUM 628 • NICKEL 629 • COBALT 629 • MOLYBDENUM 630 • SELENIUM SECTION FIVE: CLINICAL BIOCHEMISTRY 35 ENZYMES AND ISOENZYMES OF CLINICAL IMPORTANCE • ENZYMES 637 • CLINICAL SIGNIFICANCE OF ENZYME ASSAYS 639 • SERUM ENZYMES IN HEART DISEASES • SERUM ENZYMES IN LIVER DISEASES 642 • SERUM ENZYMES IN GI TRACT DISEASES 642 • SERUM ENZYMES IN MUSCLE DISEASES 643 • SERUM ENZYMES IN BONE DISEASES 643 • VALUE OF ENZYMES IN MALIGNANCIES • ISOENZYMES 36 RENAL FUNCTION TESTS • RENAL FUNCTION TESTS 651 • GLOMERULAR FILTRATION TESTS 652 • TESTS FOR RENAL BLOOD FLOW 654 • TESTS OF TUBULAR FUNCTION 654 • OTHER MISCELLANEOUS TESTS TO ASSESS RENAL FUNCTION 37 LIVER FUNCTION TESTS • FUNCTIONS OF THE LIVER 660 • TESTS BASED ON ABNORMALITIES OF BILE PIGMENT METABOLISM 660 • TESTS BASED ON LIVER’S PART IN CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM 663 • TESTS BASED ON CHANGES IN PLASMA PROTEINS 664 • TESTS BASED ON ABNORMALITIES OF LIPIDS 665 • TESTS BASED ON THE DETOXICATING FUNCTION OF THE LIVER 665 • TESTS BASED ON EXCRETORY FUNCTION OF LIVER 666 • FORMATION OF PROTHROMBIN BY LIVER 666 • TESTS BASED ON AMINO ACID CATABOLISM 667 • TESTS BASED ON DRUG METABOLISM 668 • VALUE OF SERUM ENZYMES IN LIVER DISEASES 38 GASTRIC FUNCTION TESTS • EXAMINATION OF RESTING CONTENTS 676 • FRACTIONAL GASTRIC ANALYSIS: USING TEST MEALS 677 • ACHYLIA GASTRICA 678 • STIMULATION TESTS 678 • SERUM PEPSINOGEN 681 • TUBELESS GASTRIC ANALYSIS 39 THYROID FUNCTION TESTS • TESTS BASED ON PRIMARY FUNCTION OF THYROID 684 • TESTS MEASURING BLOOD LEVELS OF THYROID HORMONES • TESTS BASED ON METABOLIC EFFECTS OF THYROID HORMONES 687 • THYROID SCANNING 688 • IMMUNOLOGICAL TESTS FOR THYROID FUNCTIONS 40 WATER AND ELECTROLYTE BALANCE AND IMBALANCE • DISTRIBUTION OF BODY WATER AND ELECTROLYTES 694 • DISTRIBUTION OF ELECTROLYTES IN THE BODY 695 • NORMAL WATER BALANCE 697 • NORMAL ELECTROLYTE BALANCE 697 • REGULATORY MECHANISMS 698 • ABNORMAL WATER AND ELECTROLYTE METABOLISM 701 • DEHYDRATION 701 • PATHOLOGICAL VARIATIONS OF WATER AND ELECTROLYTES 705 • WATER INTOXICATION 41 ACID BASE BALANCE AND IMBALANCE • ACID-BASE BALANCE IN NORMAL HEALTH 709 • BUFFERS 709 • ACIDS PRODUCED IN THE BODY 710 • MECHANISMS OF REGULATION OF PH 710 • ROLE OF DIFFERENT BUFFER SYSTEMS 711 • ROLE OF RESPIRATION IN ACID-BASE REGULATION • RENAL MECHANISMS FOR REGULATION OF ACID-BASE BALANCE 714 • ACID-BASE IMBALANCE 717 • ACIDOSIS • ALKALOSIS 42 CEREBROSPINAL FLUID (CSF)—CHEMISTRY AND CLINICAL SIGNIFICANCE • APPEARANCE OF CEREBROSPINAL FLUID 726 • PRESSURE OF CSF 727 • BIOCHEMICAL CHANGES IN CSF 727 • OTHER CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS 730 • LANGE COLLOIDAL GOLD REACTION 43 RADIOACTIVITY: RADIOISOTOPES IN MEDICINE • RADIOACTIVITY 734 • RADIOISOTOPES 735 • RADIOISOTOPES IN MEDICINE 736 • RADIATION HAZARDS • DIAGNOSTIC AND THERAPEUTIC USES OF RADIOISOTOPES SECTION SIX: MISCELLANEOUS 44 DIET AND NUTRITION • ENERGY METABOLISM 745 • CALORIC VALUE OF FOODS 745 • BMR 747 • RESPIRATORY QUOTIENT (RQ) 749 • CALORIC REQUIREMENTS 750 • NUTRITIONAL ASPECTS 753 • PROTEIN FACTOR IN NUTRITION 753 • ROLE OF CARBOHYDRATES IN DIET • ROLE OF LIPIDS IN THE DIET 760 • ROLE OF MINERALS IN DIET 761 • BALANCED DIET • PROTEIN-ENERGY MALNUTRITION (PEM) 763 • OBESITY 763 • DIET IN PREGNANCY AND LACTATION 769 • COMPOSITION AND NUTRITIVE VALUE OF COMMON FOODSTUFFS 771 • TEA, COFFEE AND COCOA 45 ENVIRONMENTAL BIOCHEMISTRY • LEAD 785 • ARSENIC 786 • FOOD POLLUTION 46 BIOCHEMISTRY OF CANCER • BIOCHEMISTRY OF CANCER CELLS AND CARCINOGENESIS 791 • PROPERTIES OF CANCER CELLS 791 • ETIOLOGY OF CANCER (CARCINOGENESIS) 792 • EXPERIMENTAL CARCINOGENESIS 793 • GROWTH FACTORS 799 • APOPTOSIS: BIOCHEMISTRY AND ROLE IN CARCINOGENESIS 804 • BIOCHEMISTRY OF METASTASIS 806 • ONCOGENIC MARKERS OR TUMOUR MARKERS 808 • WHAT ARE TUMOUR MARKERS? 808 • CHARACTERISTICS OF AN IDEAL TUMOUR MARKER 808 • CLINICAL USEFULNESS OF DIFFERENT TUMOUR MARKERS 809 • COMMONLY USED TUMOUR MARKERS 810 • TUMOUR MARKERS NOT USED COMMONLY 47 BIOPHYSICS: PRINCIPLES AND BIOMEDICAL IMPORTANCE • HYDROGEN ION CONCENTRATION (PH) 815 • BUFFERS 817 • DIFFUSION 817 • OSMOSIS AND OSMOTIC PRESSURE • DIALYSIS 819 • GIBBS-DONNAN MEMBRANE EQUILIBRIUM 819 • SURFACE TENSION (ST) 820 • VISCOSITY • COLLOIDS 48 INTRODUCTION TO BIOCHEMICAL TECHNIQUES • SPECTROPHOTOMETRY 825 • CHROMATOGRAPHY 827 • ELECTROPHORESIS 830 • PH METRE 833 • IMMUNOASSAY TECHNIQUES 834 • AUTOMATION IN CLINICAL LABORATORIES 49 BIOCHEMISTRY OF AIDS • DISCOVERY OF HIV 838 • RETROVIRAL BACKGROUND 838 • STRUCTURE AND MOLECULAR FEATURES OF HIV 839 • VIRUS LIFE CYCLE 840 • MODES OF TRANSMISSION 841 • NATURAL HISTORY OF HIV INFECTION 842 • IMMUNOLOGICAL RESPONSE IN HIV 845 • DIAGNOSIS OF HIV INFECTION 845 • ANTIRETROVIRAL THERAPY (ART) 50 BIOCHEMISTRY OF AGEING • DEFINITION OF AGEING 851 • LIFE SPAN AND LIFE EXPECTANCY 851 • AGEING THEORIES 851 • IN SEARCH OF THE SECRETS OF AGEING 852 • OXYGEN RADICALS 853 • ANTIOXIDANTS AND AGEING GERBILS 853 • GLUCOSE CROSSLINKING • DNA REPAIR 854 • HEAT SHOCK PROTEINS 855 • HORMONES 855 • HORMONES AND RESEARCH ON AGEING • HORMONE REPLACEMENT 856 • GROWTH FACTORS 856 • ROLE OF DOPAMINE RECEPTORS IN AGEING 856 • MACULAR DEGENERATION OF EYE