THE ADMINISTRATION OF DRUGS
CONTENTS SIGNI?CANCE OF NANO-DRUG DELIVERY IN CANCER THERAPY, APPLICATION OF NANOPARTICLES IN OVERCOMING DRUG RESISTANCE, TARGETED THERAPY, AND IMMUNOTHERAPY SYNTHESIS OF DIFFERENT TYPES, SHAPES, AND SIZES OF NANOCARRIERS USING SYNTHETIC AND BIOLOGICAL APPROACHES SYNTHESIS OF NANOCARRIERS LOADED WITH ANTI-CANCER DRUGS BY USING FUNCTIONALIZATION OR CONJUGATIONS, ENCAPSULATION METHODS NANO-DRUG CARRIERS FOR CHEMOTHERAPEUTIC AGENTS DELIVERY IN CANCER DISEASE TREATMENT TESTING OF NANOCARRIERS LOADED WITH CHEMOTHERAPEUTIC AGENTS IN THE ANIMAL MODELS OF CANCERS: PRECLINICAL TRIALS FOR EF?CACY AND SAFETY PRO?LING OF NANOCARRIERS TESTING OF NANOCARRIERS LOADED WITH CHEMOTHERAPEUTIC AGENTS: CANCER PATIENTS AND CLINICAL TRIALS NANOCARRIERS-BASED PRODUCTS IN THE MARKET, FDA APPROVAL, COMMERCIALIZATION OF NANOCARRIERS, AND GLOBAL MARKET LIMITATIONS OF NANOCARRIERS SUCH AS CELL AND TISSUE TOXICITY, GENOTOXICITY, SCALE-UP OF NANOMATERIALS HEALTH AND ENVIRONMENTAL HAZARDS ASSOCIATED WITH THE SYNTHESIS OF NANOMATERIALS-RESPIRATORY DISEASES, GOVERNMENT REGULATIONS, ETHICAL ISSUES FUTURE TRENDS AND INNOVATION IN NANO DRUG DELIVERY FOR CANCER THERAPY, APPLICATION OF SIRNA (NANOPARTICLE-BASED RNA) THERAPY, ULTRASOUND LINKED NANO-CANCER THERAPEUTICS, AND APPLICATION OF EXOSOMES-BASED CANCER THERAPY SIGNIFICANCE OF NANO-DRUG DELIVERY IN CANCER THERAPY, APPLICATION OF NANOPARTICLES IN OVERCOMING DRUG RESISTANCE, TARGETED THERAPY, AND IMMUNOTHERAPY ABSTRACT CANCER REMAINS A GLOBAL LEADING CAUSE OF DEATH AND IS A COMPLEX DISEASE THAT NEEDS A VERSATILE METHOD TO TREAT DESPITE STRATEGIES TO REDUCE DEATHS, ALLEVIATE CHRONIC PAIN, AND IMPROVE QUALITY OF LIFE, EXISTING SHORTFALLS IN CANCER THERAPIES STILL FACE LIMITATIONS THE USE OF NANOTECHNOLOGY HAS DEVELOPED AS A PROMISING AVENUE IN CANCER TREATMENT, SPECI?CALLY NANOPARTICLES (NPS) RANGING FROM 1 TO 100 NM THE DESIGN OF THESE NPS PLAYS AN IMPORTANT ROLE SINCE PHYSICAL AND STRUCTURAL FEATURES CONTROL THE PHARMACOKINETICS, INTERNALIZATION, AND SAFETY OF THE DRUGS MOREOVER, WITH THE EMERGING MULTIDRUG RESISTANCE MECHANISMS STUDIED, NPS ARE BEING SUBJECTED TO MORE RENEWED RESEARCH RECENTLY, SCIENTISTS HAVE STARTED TO EXPLORE THE ROLE OF NPS IN IMMUNOTHERAPY POTENTIAL ADVANTAGES OF USING NANOCARRIERS IN DIFFERENT BIOMEDICAL APPLICATIONS, ESPECIALLY TARGETED THER- APY HAVE BEEN EXTENSIVELY STUDIED FOR CANCER TREATMENT THIS CHAPTER DISCUSSES NUMEROUS TYPES OF NPS, TARGETING MECHANISMS, IMMUNOTHERAPY, AND THE IMPOR- TANCE OF NANOTECHNOLOGY IN CANCER TREATMENT FURTHER, WE ALSO SUMMARIZE THE FUTURE PERSPECTIVES OVERALL, FURTHER RESEARCH IN THIS AREA WILL LEAD TO NEW INNOVA- TIVE METHODOLOGIES FOR CANCER TREATMENT THAT CAN IMPROVE PATIENT OUTCOMES KEYWORDS CANCER THERAPIES CANCER IMMUNOTHERAPY NANO-DRUG DELIVERY SYSTEMS NANOPARTICLES TARGETED CANCER THERAPY NANOCARRIERS DRUG RESISTANCE INTRODUCTION GLOBALLY, CANCER RANKS AS ONE OF THE LEADING CAUSES OF DEATH, ACCOUNTING FOR ALMOST 10 MILLION DEATHS IN 2020 ACCORDING TO THE WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION (WHO) AN ESTIMATED 19 3 MILLION NEW CANCER CASES AND NEARLY 10 0 MILLION CANCER DEATHS OCCURRED IN 2020 DESPITE EFFECTIVE TREATMENTS AND DEVICES, CANCER REMAINS A DEVASTATING DISEASE CANCER DEVELOPS FROM THE ALTERATION OF NORMAL CELLS INTO TUMOR CELLS, WHICH CAN SPREAD THROUGHOUT THE BODY IN GENERAL, CANCER IS CONSIDERED A RESULT OF GENETIC MUTATIONS (SUNG ET AL 2021) MANY THERAPEUTIC TECHNIQUES HAVE BEEN TESTED AGAINST CANCER DIAGNOSIS, EACH YIELDING VARIOUS OUTCOMES OF EFFECTIVENESS THE MOST COMMON PREVAILING TRADITIONAL TREATMENTS ARE CHEMOTHERAPY, SURGERY, AND RADIOTHERAPY THE APPLICATION OF CONVENTIONAL THERAPY HAS ALSO SHOWN IMPROVEMENT IN CANCER MANAGEMENT HOWEVER, A LEADING CHALLENGE POSED BY THIS APPROACH IS THE KILLING OF CANCEROUS AND NONCANCEROUS CELLS, RESULTING IN SEVERE SIDE EFFECTS SUCH AS BONE MARROW DEPRESSION, HAIR LOSS, AND OTHER TOXIC REACTIONS (ZITVOGEL ET AL 2008) AS A RESULT, CANCER RESEARCH CONDUCTED OVER THE PAST FEW DECADES HAS PRIORITIZED THE DEVELOPMENT OF CREATING MEDICATIONS THAT TARGET TUMOR CELLS RATHER THAN AFFECTING NORMAL CELLS PRECISION THERAPY IS AN EXAMPLE OF TARGETED THERAPY, YET THERE ARE STILL SEVERAL SIDE EFFECTS, AND DRUG RESISTANCE HAS REMAINED AN ENDURING CHALLENGE CHE- MOTHERAPY IS WIDELY USED FOR VARIOUS CANCER CASES AND METASTATIC CANCERS AS A STANDARD TREATMENT NONETHELESS, OVER 90% OF CHEMOTHERAPY FAILURES ARE DUE TO THE EMERGENCE OF RESISTANCE TO THE AVAILABLE DRUGS THIS RESISTANCE PATTERN RESEMBLES THE RESISTANCE SEEN IN THE TREATMENT OF INFECTIOUS DISEASES AND SIGNI?ES A CHALLENGING FEATURE OF MANAGING AND PREVENTING CANCERS (GOODMAN ET AL 1946) DURING THE LAST FEW DECADES, RESISTANCE PATTERN HAS APPEARED AS A MAJOR COMPLICATION AND THIS CONDITION ENABLES THE CANCER CELLS TO PROLIFERATE IN THE PRESENCE OF A CHEMOTHERAPEU- TIC AGENT SIGNI?CANT RESISTANCE LEADS TO A REPEATED TREATMENT OF A SINGLE TYPE OF ANTICANCER AGENT AND EXTENDS TO DRUGS WITH SIMILAR OR DIFFERENT MECHANISMS OF ACTION THIS MECHANISM IS KNOWN AS MULTIDRUG RESISTANCE (MDR), WHICH CAN BE INHERENT OR ACQUIRED (OZBEN 2006) TO ADDRESS THIS ISSUE, IN RECENT YEARS, NANOTECHNOLOGY HAS EMERGED AS A PROMISING ?ELD IN THE TREATMENT OF CANCER BY DE?NITION, NANOTECHNOL- OGY FOCUSES ON THE SCIENTI?C AND ENGINEERING DISCIPLINES INVOLVED IN THE DESIGN, SYNTHESIS, AND CONSTRUCTION OF DEVICES THAT EXHIBIT FUNCTIONAL STRUCTURES AT THE NANOSCALE NANOTECHNOLOGY HAS MANY APPLICATIONS IN MEDICINE AND PLAYS A ROLE IN VARIOUS AREAS SUCH AS MOLECULAR IMAGING, DRUG DELIVERY, DIAGNOSIS OF DISEASES, BIOMARKER MAPPING, GENE THERAPY, AND BIOSENSORS RESEARCH INTO PRECISE DRUG THERAPIES TARGETING SPECI?C SITES AND DIAGNOSTIC APPROACHES FOR DIFFERENT PATHOLOGIES HAVE BEEN OF INTEREST (SAHOO AND LABHASETWAR 2003; NASROLLAHZADEH ET AL 2019) CURRENTLY, THIS ?ELD PLAYS A PIVOTAL ROLE AIMED AT DESIGNING APPLICATIONS FOR SAFER AND MORE EF?CIENT TUMOR TARGETING, DETECTION, AND TREATMENT THE INTRODUCTION OF NANO- TECHNOLOGY HAS HAD A SIGNI?CANT IMPACT ON THE CLINICAL MANAGEMENT OF TUMORS, LEADING TO THE RAPID DEVELOPMENT OF TARGETED THERAPY COMBINED WITH DRUG THERAPY AND EARLY TUMOR DETECTION AMONG THEM, NANOPARTICLE-BASED DRUG DELIVERY SYSTEMS HAVE BECOME A RESEARCH HOTSPOT, DUE TO THEIR EF?CIENT LOADING, TARGETED THERAPY, AND OTHER ROLES FOR DRUGS THAT SHOW PROMISE IN THE BIOMEDICAL ?ELD (JAIN ET AL