A MANUAL OF DENTAL ANATOMY, HUMAN AND COMPARATIVE
1 INTRODUCTION LANGUAGE OF ANATOMY POSITIONS PLANES TERMS USED IN RELATION TO TRUNK, NECK AND FACE TERMS USED IN RELATION TO UPPER LIMB TERMS USED IN RELATION TO LOWER LIMB TERMS OF RELATION COMMONLY USED IN EMBRYOLOGY TERMS RELATED TO BODY MOVEMENTS IN THE NECK IN UPPER LIMB IN LOWER LIMB TERMS USED FOR DESCRIBING BONE FEATURES CLINICAL ANATOMY FACTS TO REMEMBER MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS 2 SKELETON BONES DEFINITION FUNCTIONS CLASSIFICATION OF BONES ACCORDING TO SHAPE DEVELOPMENTAL CLASSIFICATION REGIONAL CLASSIFICATION STRUCTURAL CLASSIFICATION GROSS STRUCTURE OF AN ADULT LONG BONE PARTS OF A YOUNG GROWING BONE EPIPHYSIS DIAPHYSIS METAPHYSIS EPIPHYSIAL PLATE OF CARTILAGE BLOOD SUPPLY OF BONES ARTERIAL SUPPLY VENOUS DRAINAGE LYMPHATIC DRAINAGE NERVE SUPPLY OF BONES GROWTH OF A LONG BONE FACTORS AFFECTING GROWTH CARTILAGE GENERAL FEATURES OF CARTILAGE 3 JOINTS CLASSIFICATION OF JOINTS FIBROUS JOINTS CARTILAGINOUS JOINTS SYNOVIAL JOINTS FUNCTIONAL CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO NUMBER OF ARTICULATING BONES CHARACTERS CLASSIFICATION OF SYNOVIAL JOINTS PLANE SYNOVIAL JOINTS HINGE JOINTS (GINGLYMI) PIVOT (TROCHOID) JOINTS CONDYLAR (BICONDYLAR) JOINTS ELLIPSOID JOINTS SADDLE (SELLAR) JOINTS BALL-AND-SOCKET (SPHEROIDAL) JOINTS MECHANISM OF LUBRICATION OF A SYNOVIAL JOINT BLOOD SUPPLY NERVE SUPPLY STABILITY 4 MUSCLES DERIVATION OF NAME TYPES OF MUSCLES SKELETAL MUSCLES PARTS OF A MUSCLE TWO ENDS TWO PARTS SECTION I GENERAL ANATOMY CONTENTS STRUCTURE OF STRIATED MUSCLE CONTRACTILE TISSUE SUPPORTING TISSUE FASCICULAR ARCHITECTURE OF MUSCLES PARALLEL FASCICULI OBLIQUE FASCICULI SPIRAL OR TWISTED FASCICULI NAMING THE MUSCLES FEATURES USED IN NAMING MUSCLES SHAPE SIZE NUMBER OF HEADS ATTACHMENT DEPTH POSITION ACTION NERVE SUPPLY OF SKELETAL MUSCLE NERVE SUPPLY OF SMOOTH MUSCLE NERVE SUPPLY OF CARDIAC MUSCLE ACTIONS OF MUSCLES 5 CIRCULATORY SYSTEM COMPONENTS TYPES OF CIRCULATION OF BLOOD ARTERIES CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES TYPES OF ARTERIES AND STRUCTURE PALPABLE ARTERIES VEINS STRUCTURE OF VEINS CAPILLARIES SINUSOIDS ANASTOMOSES TYPES END ARTERIES 6 LYMPHATIC SYSTEM LYMPH CAPILLARIES AND LYMPH VESSELS CENTRAL LYMPHOID TISSUES BONE MARROW THYMUS PERIPHERAL LYMPHOID ORGANS LYMPH NODES SPLEEN CIRCULATING POOL OF LYMPHOCYTES GROWTH PATTERN OF LYMPHOID TISSUE 7 NERVOUS SYSTEM PARTS OF NERVOUS SYSTEM CELL TYPES OF NERVOUS SYSTEM NEURON NEUROGLIA FUNCTIONS OF GLIAL AND EPENDYMAL CELLS REFLEX ARC PERIPHERAL NERVES SPINAL NERVES NERVE PLEXUSES FOR LIMBS BLOOD AND NERVE SUPPLY OF PERIPHERAL NERVES NERVE FIBRES MYELINATED FIBRES NONMYELINATED FIBRES CLASSIFICATION OF PERIPHERAL NERVE FIBRES AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM SYMPATHETIC NERVOUS SYSTEM PARASYMPATHETIC NERVOUS SYSTEM NEUROTRANSMITTERS 8 SKIN, FASCIAE AND LIGAMENTS SKIN SURFACE AREA PIGMENTATION OF SKIN THICKNESS STRUCTURE OF SKIN EPIDERMIS DERMIS OR CORIUM SURFACE IRREGULARITIES OF THE SKIN APPENDAGES OF SKIN NAILS HAIR SWEAT GLANDS SEBACEOUS GLANDS FUNCTIONS OF SKIN FASCIAE SUPERFICIAL FASCIA DISTRIBUTION OF FAT IN THIS FASCIA TYPES OF FATS IMPORTANT FEATURES DEEP FASCIA DISTRIBUTION MODIFICATIONS OF DEEP FASCIA LIGAMENTS TYPES OF LIGAMENTS RAPHE 9 INTRODUCTION AND OSTEOLOGY SKULL BONES OF THE SKULL EXTERIOR OF THE SKULL NORMA VERTICALIS NORMA OCCIPITALIS NORMA FRONTALIS NORMA LATERALIS NORMA BASALIS INTERIOR OF THE SKULL CLINICAL ANATOMY 93, THE ORBIT FOETAL SKULL/NEONATAL SKULL OSSIFICATION CRANIOMETRY MANDIBLE AGE CHANGES IN THE MANDIBLE STRUCTURES RELATED TO MANDIBLE MAXILLA PARIETAL BONE OCCIPITAL BONE FRONTAL BONE TEMPORAL BONE SPHENOID BONE ETHMOID BONE VOMER INFERIOR NASAL CONCHA ZYGOMATIC BONE NASAL BONES LACRIMAL BONES PALATINE BONES HYOID BONE CERVICAL VERTEBRAE TYPICAL CERVICAL VERTEBRAE FIRST CERVICAL VERTEBRA SECOND CERVICAL VERTEBRA SEVENTH CERVICAL VERTEBRA OSSIFICATION OF CRANIAL BONES DEVELOPMENT OF NEUROCRANIUM DEVELOPMENT OF SKULL BONES FORAMINA OF SKULL BONES AND THEIR CONTENTS MNEMONICS CLINICOANATOMICAL PROBLEM 10 SCALP, TEMPLE AND FACE SCALP AND SUPERFICIAL TEMPORAL REGION DISSECTION FACE FACIAL MUSCLES SENSORY NERVE SUPPLY ARTERIES OF THE FACE FACIAL ARTERY EYELIDS OR PALPEBRAE LACRIMAL APPARATUS DEVELOPMENT OF FACE CLINICOANATOMICAL PROBLEMS FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTIONS VIVA VOCE 11 SIDE OF THE NECK THE NECK DEEP CERVICAL FASCIA INVESTING LAYER PRETRACHEAL FASCIA PREVERTEBRAL FASCIA CAROTID SHEATH PHARYNGEAL SPACES STERNOCLEIDOMASTOID MUSCLE POSTERIOR TRIANGLE CONTENTS OF THE POSTERIOR TRIANGLE FURTHER READING FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTIONS 12 ANTERIOR TRIANGLE OF THE NECK STRUCTURE IN THE ANTERIOR MEDIAN REGION OF THE NECK SECTION II HEAD AND NECK CLINICAL ANATOMY ANTERIOR TRIANGLE SUBMENTAL AND DIGASTRIC TRIANGLE CAROTID TRIANGLE MUSCULAR TRIANGLE ANSA CERVICALIS COMMON CAROTID ARTERY EXTERNAL CAROTID ARTERY POTENTIAL TISSUE SPACES 13 PAROTID REGION PAROTID GLAND PAROTID DUCT/STENSON’S DUCT DEVELOPMENT 14 TEMPORAL AND INFRATEMPORAL REGIONS TEMPORAL FOSSA INFRATEMPORAL FOSSA LANDMARKS ON THE LATERAL SIDE OF THE HEAD MUSCLES OF MASTICATION MAXILLARY ARTERY TEMPOROMANDIBULAR JOINT MANDIBULAR NERVE OTIC GANGLION 15 SUBMANDIBULAR REGION SUPRAHYOID MUSCLES SUBMANDIBULAR SALIVARY GLAND COMPARISON OF THE THREE SALIVARY GLANDS 16 STRUCTURES IN THE NECK GLANDS THYROID GLAND HISTOLOGY PARATHYROID GLANDS DEVELOPMENT OF THYMUS AND PARATHYROID GLANDS BLOOD VESSELS OF THE NECK SUBCLAVIAN ARTERY INTERNAL CAROTID ARTERY INTERNAL JUGULAR VEIN NERVES OF THE NECK GLOSSOPHARYNGEAL NERVE—IX NERVE VAGUS NERVE—X NERVE ACCESSORY NERVE—XI NERVE CERVICAL PART OF SYMPATHETIC TRUNK LYMPHATIC DRAINAGE OF HEAD AND NECK STYLOID APPARATUS DEVELOPMENT OF THE ARTERIES 17 PREVERTEBRAL AND PARAVERTEBRAL REGIONS VERTEBRAL ARTERY SCALENOVERTEBRAL TRIANGLE TRACHEA OESOPHAGUS JOINTS OF THE NECK SCALENE MUSCLES CERVICAL PLEURA CERVICAL PLEXUS PHRENIC NERVE 18 BACK OF THE NECK INTRODUCTION MUSCLES OF THE BACK SUBOCCIPITAL REGION 19 CONTENTS OF VERTEBRAL CANAL VERTEBRAL SYSTEM OF VEINS 20 CRANIAL CAVITY CONTENTS CEREBRAL DURA MATER CAVERNOUS SINUS SUPERIOR SAGITTAL SINUS SIGMOID SINUS HYPOPHYSIS CEREBRI (PITUITARY GLAND) TRIGEMINAL GANGLION MIDDLE MENINGEAL ARTERY OTHER STRUCTURES SEEN IN CRANIAL FOSSAE AFTER REMOVAL OF BRAIN PETROSAL NERVES 21 CONTENTS OF THE ORBIT ORBITS EXTRAOCULAR MUSCLES VESSELS OF THE ORBIT NERVES OF THE ORBIT OPTIC NERVE CILIARY GANGLION OCULOMOTOR NERVE TROCHLEAR NERVE ABDUCENT NERVE BRANCHES OF OPHTHALMIC DIVISION OF TRIGEMINAL NERVE 22 MOUTH AND PHARYNX ORAL CAVITY ORAL CAVITY PROPER TEETH STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT OF DECIDUOUS TEETH MOLECULAR REGULATION HARD AND SOFT PALATES MUSCLES OF THE SOFT PALATE DEVELOPMENT OF PALATE PHARYNX PARTS OF THE PHARYNX WALDEYER’S LYMPHATIC RING PALATINE TONSILS STRUCTURE OF PHARYNX MUSCLES OF PHARYNX STRUCTURES IN BETWEEN PHARYNGEAL MUSCLES KILLIAN’S DEHISCENCE DEGLUTITION 23 NOSE, DEEP PARANASAL SINUSES AND PTERYGOPALATINE FOSSA NOSE NASAL SEPTUM LATERAL WALL OF NOSE CONCHAE AND MEATUSES OLFACTORY NERVE—1ST NERVE PARANASAL SINUSES PTERYGOPALATINE FOSSA MAXILLARY NERVE PTERYGOPALATINE GANGLION 24 LARYNX CONSTITUTION OF LARYNX CARTILAGES OF LARYNX CAVITY OF LARYNX INTRINSIC MUSCLES OF LARYNX MOVEMENTS OF VOCAL FOLDS MECHANISM OF SPEECH 25 TONGUE MUSCLES OF THE TONGUE HYPOGLOSSAL NERVE—XII NERVE DEVELOPMENT OF TONGUE TASTE PATHWAY 26 EAR EXTERNAL EAR EXTERNAL ACOUSTIC MEATUS TYMPANIC MEMBRANE MIDDLE EAR TYMPANIC OR MASTOID ANTRUM INTERNAL EAR BLOOD SUPPLY OF LABYRINTH VESTIBULOCOCHLEAR NERVE REASONS OF EARACHE NOISE POLLUTION 27 EYEBALL OUTER COAT CORNEA MIDDLE COAT INNER COAT/RETINA AQUEOUS HUMOUR LENS VITREOUS BODY 28 SURFACE MARKING AND RADIOLOGICAL ANATOMY SURFACE LANDMARKS LANDMARKS ON THE FACE SURFACE MARKING OF VARIOUS STRUCTURES VEINS/SINUSES NERVES RADIOLOGICAL ANATOMY APPENDIX: PARASYMPATHETIC GANGLIA, ARTERIES, PHARYNGEAL ARCHES AND CLINICAL TERMS SYMPATHETIC TRUNK PARASYMPATHETIC GANGLIA ARTERIES OF HEAD AND NECK STRUCTURES DERIVED FROM/DERIVATIVES OF PHARYNGEAL ARCHES ENDODERMAL POUCHES ECTODERMAL CLEFTS CLINICAL TERMS SPOTS 29 INTRODUCTION DIVISIONS OF NERVOUS SYSTEM ANATOMICAL FUNCTIONAL CELLULAR ARCHITECTURE NEUROGLIAL CELLS PARTS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (CNS) PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM 30 MENINGES OF THE BRAIN AND CEREBROSPINAL FLUID DURA MATER ARACHNOID MATER PROLONGATIONS PIA MATER EXTRADURAL (EPIDURAL) AND SUBDURAL SPACES SUBARACHNOID SPACE CISTERNS COMMUNICATIONS CEREBROSPINAL FLUID (CSF) FORMATION CIRCULATION ABSORPTION FUNCTIONS OF CSF 31 SPINAL CORD NUCLEI OF SPINAL CORD NUCLEI IN ANTERIOR GREY COLUMN OR HORN NUCLEI IN LATERAL HORN NUCLEI IN POSTERIOR GREY COLUMN SENSORY RECEPTORS TRACTS OF THE SPINAL CORD DESCENDING TRACTS ASCENDING TRACTS SECTION III BRAIN GENERAL ANATOMY 1 INTRODUCTION I ANATOMICAL POSITION IS THE POSITION TO LEARN ANATOMY BONE CONSTITUTES THE STRENGTH OF THE BODY, MUSCLES MOVE THE BONES AT THE JOINTS BLOOD VESSELS SUPPLY OXYGEN AND TAKE BACK CARBON DIOXIDE, NERVES STIMULATE THE MUSCLES AND INFORM BRAIN ABOUT EVERYTHING SKIN IS THE OUTER GARMENT AND LARGEST ORGAN, ALL THESE CONSTITUTE GENERAL ANATOMY, WHICH IS ESSENTIAL TO UNDERSTAND TEXTBOOKS OF ANTOMY HUMAN ANATOMY IS THE SCIENCE WHICH DEALS WITH THE STRUCTURE OF THE HUMAN BODY THE MAIN SUBDIVISIONS OF ANATOMY ARE: 1 CADAVERIC ANATOMY IS STUDIED ON DEAD EMBALMED (PRESERVED) BODIES USUALLY WITH THE NAKED EYE (MACROSCOPIC OR GROSS ANATOMY) HEAD AND NECK AND BRAIN ARE STUDIED AS REGIONAL ANATOMY (FIG 1 1) 2 LIVING ANATOMY IS STUDIED BY INSPECTION (FIG 1 2), PALPATION, PERCUSSION, AUSCULTATION, RADIOGRAPHY, ETC 3 EMBRYOLOGY (DEVELOPMENTAL ANATOMY) IS THE STUDY OF THE PRENATAL DEVELOPMENTAL CHANGES IN AN INDIVIDUAL (FIG 1 3) 4 HISTOLOGY (MICROSCOPIC ANATOMY) IS THE STUDY OF STRUCTURES WITH THE AID OF A MICROSCOPE (FIG 1 4) 5 SURFACE ANATOMY (TOPOGRAPHIC ANATOMY) IS THE STUDY OF DEEPER PARTS OF THE BODY IN RELATION TO THE SKIN FIG 1 1: VARIOUS REGIONS OF THE BODY FIG 1 2: INSPECTION OF THE CHEST FIG 1 3: DEVELOPMENT OF VARIOUS PARTS OF THE GUT INTRODUCTION “LIFE IS A BOOK WITH THREE CHAPTERS TWO ARE ALREADY WRITTEN BY GOD—BIRTH AND DEATH THE CHAPTER IN THE MIDDLE IS EMPTY; FILL IT WITH SMILE, LOVE AND FAITH ” —ANONYMOUS SECTION I GENERAL ANATOMY SURFACE, E G PALPATING THE ARTERY IT IS HELPFUL IN CLINICAL PRACTICE AND SURGICAL OPERATIONS, E G PALPATING THE ARTERY (FIG 1 5) 6 RADIOGRAPHIC AND IMAGING ANATOMY IS THE STUDY OF THE BONES AND DEEPER ORGANS BY PLAIN AND CONTRAST RADIO- GRAPHY (X-RAY), BY ULTRASOUND AND COMPUTERISED TOMOGRAPHIC (CT) SCANS AND MRI SCANS (FIG 1 6) 7 APPLIED ANATOMY (CLINICAL ANATOMY) DEALS WITH APPLICA- TION OF THE ANATOMICAL KNOWLEDGE TO THE MEDICAL AND SURGICAL PRACTICE (FIG 1 7) 8 GENETICS DEALS WITH THE STUDY OF INFORMATION PRESENT IN THE CHROMOSOMES (SEE CHAPTER 43) LANGUAGE OF ANATOMY VARIOUS POSITIONS, PLANES, TERMS IN RELATION TO VARIOUS REGIONS SPECIALLY HEAD AND NECK AND THEIR MOVEMENTS ARE DESCRIBED POSITIONS ANATOMICAL POSITION: WHEN A PERSON IS STANDING STRAIGHT WITH EYES LOOKING FORWARDS, BOTH ARMS BY THE SIDE OF BODY, PALMS FACING FORWARDS, BOTH FEET TOGETHER, THE POSITION IS ANATOMICAL POSITION (FIG 1 8) SUPINE POSITION: WHEN A PERSON IS LYING ON HER/HIS BACK, ARMS BY THE SIDE, PALMS FACING UPWARDS AND FEET PUT TOGETHER, THE POSITION IS SUPINE POSITION (FIG 1 9) PRONE POSITION: PERSON LYING ON HIS/HER FACE, CHEST AND ABDOMEN IS SAID TO BE IN PRONE POSITION (FIG 1 10) PLANES A PLANE PASSING THROUGH THE CENTRE OF THE BODY DIVIDING IT INTO TWO EQUAL RIGHT AND LEFT HALVES, IS FIG 1 6: X-RAY CHEST: POSTEROANTERIOR VIEW FIG 1 7: CLOSE RELATION OF THE TWO NERVES TO THE TEMPOROMANDIBULAR JOINT FIG 1 4: HISTOLOGY OF THE SKIN FIG 1 5: PALPATING THE DORSALIS PEDIS ARTERY SECTION I GENERAL ANATOMY THE MEDIAN OR MIDSAGITTAL PLANE (FIG 1 11) PLANE PARALLEL TO MEDIAN OR MIDSAGITTAL PLANE IS THE SAGITTAL PLANE A PLANE AT RIGHT ANGLES TO SAGITTAL OR MEDIAN PLANE WHICH DIVIDES THE BODY INTO ANTERIOR AND POSTERIOR HALVES IS CALLED A CORONAL PLANE A PLANE AT RIGHT ANGLES TO BOTH SAGITTAL AND CORONAL PLANES WHICH DIVIDES THE BODY INTO UPPER AND LOWER PARTS IS CALLED A TRANSVERSE—HORIZONTAL PLANE TERMS USED IN RELATION TO TRUNK, NECK AND FACE VENTRAL OR ANTERIOR IS THE FRONT OF TRUNK, NECK AND FACE DORSAL OR POSTERIOR IS THE BACK OF TRUNK, NECK AND FACE MEDIAL IS A PLANE CLOSE TO THE MEDIAN PLANE LATERAL IS PLANE AWAY FROM THE MEDIAN PLANE PROXIMAL/CRANIAL/SUPERIOR IS CLOSE TO THE HEAD END OF BODY (FIGS 1 12 AND 1 13) DISTAL/CAUDAL/INFERIOR IS CLOSE TO THE LOWER END OF THE TRUNK SUPERFICIAL IS CLOSE TO SKIN/TOWARDS THE SURFACE OF BODY DEEP IS AWAY FROM SKIN/AWAY FROM THE SURFACE OF BODY IPSILATERAL IS ON THE SAME SIDE OF THE BODY AS ANOTHER STRUCTURE CONTRALATERAL IS ON OPPOSITE SIDE OF THE BODY FROM ANOTHER STRUCTURE INVAGINATION IS PROJECTION INSIDE EVAGINATION IS PROJECTION OUTSIDE FIG 1 8: ANATOMICAL POSITION FIG 1 10: PRONE POSITION FIG 1 11: MEDIAN, SAGITTAL, CORONAL AND HORIZONTAL PLANES FIG 1 12: LANGUAGE OF ANATOMY FIG 1 9: SUPINE POSITION SECTION I GENERAL ANATOMY TERMS OF RELATION COMMONLY USED IN EMBRYOLOGY AND COMPARATIVE ANATOMY, BUT SOMETIMES IN GROSS ANATOMY A VENTRAL—TOWARDS THE BELLY (LIKE ANTERIOR) B DORSAL—TOWARDS THE BACK (LIKE POSTERIOR) C CRANIAL OR ROSTRAL—TOWARDS THE HEAD (LIKE SUPERIOR) (FIG 1 13) D CAUDAL—TOWARDS THE TAIL TERMS RELATED TO BODY MOVEMENTS MOVEMENTS IN GENERAL AT SYNOVIAL JOINTS ARE DIVIDED INTO FOUR MAIN CATEGORIES 1 GLIDING MOVEMENT: RELATIVELY FLAT SURFACES MOVE BACK- AND-FORTH AND FROM SIDE-TO-SIDE WITH RESPECT TO ONE ANOTHER THE ANGLE BETWEEN ARTICULATING BONES DOES NOT CHANGE SIGNIFICANTLY 2 ANGULAR MOVEMENTS: ANGLE BETWEEN ARTICULATING BONES DECREASES OR INCREASES IN FLEXION THERE IS DECREASE IN ANGLE BETWEEN ARTICULATING BONES AND IN EXTENSION THERE IS INCREASE IN ANGLE BETWEEN ARTICULATING BONES LATERAL FLEXION IS MOVEMENT OF TRUNK SIDEWAYS TO THE RIGHT OR LEFT AT THE WAIST ADDUCTION IS MOVEMENT OF BONE TOWARD MIDLINE, WHEREAS ABDUCTION IS MOVE- MENT OF BONE AWAY FROM MIDLINE (FIGS 1 14 AND 1 15) 3 SPECIAL MOVEMENTS: THESE OCCUR ONLY AT CERTAIN JOINTS, E G PRONATION, SUPINATION AT RADIOULNAR JOINTS, PROTRACTION AND RETRACTION AT TEMPOROMANDIBULAR JOINT (FIGS 1 21 TO 1 23) 4 ROTATION: A BONE REVOLVES AROUND ITS OWN LONGITUDINAL AXIS IN MEDIAL ROTATION ANTERIOR SURFACE OF A BONE OF LIMB IS TURNED TOWARDS THE MIDLINE IN LATERAL ROTATION ANTERIOR SURFACE OF A BONE OF LIMB IS TURNED AWAY FROM MIDLINE TERMS USED IN RELATION TO UPPER LIMB VENTRAL OR ANTERIOR IS THE FRONT ASPECT DORSAL OR POSTERIOR IS THE BACK ASPECT MEDIAL BORDER LIES ALONG THE LITTLE FINGER, MEDIAL BORDER OF FOREARM AND ARM LATERAL BORDER FOLLOWS THE THUMB, LATERAL BORDER OF FOREARM AND ARM PROXIMAL IS CLOSE TO ROOT OF LIMB, WHILE DISTAL IS AWAY FROM THE ROOT (FIG 1 13) PALMAR ASPECT IS THE FRONT OF THE PALM (FIG 1 12) DORSAL ASPECT OF HAND IS ON THE BACK OF PALM FLEXOR ASPECT IS FRONT OF UPPER LIMB EXTENSOR ASPECT IS BACK OF UPPER LIMB TERMS USED IN RELATION TO LOWER LIMB POSTERIOR ASPECT IS THE BACK OF LOWER LIMB ANTERIOR ASPECT IS THE FRONT OF LOWER LIMB (FIG 1 13) MEDIAL BORDER LIES ALONG THE BIG TOE OR HALLUX, MEDIAL BORDER OF LEG AND THIGH (FIG 1 12) LATERAL BORDER LIES ALONG THE LITTLE TOE, LATERAL BORDER OF LEG AND THIGH FLEXOR ASPECT IS BACK OF LOWER LIMB EXTENSOR ASPECT IS FRONT OF LOWER LIMB (FIG 1 13) PROXIMAL IS CLOSE TO THE ROOT OF LIMB, WHILE DISTAL IS AWAY FROM IT (FIG 1 13) FIG 1 14: FLEXION FIG 1 13: ANATOMICAL TERMS