ORAL PATHOLOGY AND PRACTICE
1 INTRODUCTION TO PATHOLOGY 11 INTRODUCTION 12 HISTORY OF PATHOLOGY 13 MAKING A DIAGNOSIS 14 DIAGNOSTIC INVESTIGATIONS IN PATHOLOGY 141 GROSS PATHOLOGY 142 BIOPSY 143 HISTOPATHOLOGY 144 CYTOPATHOLOGY 145 HAEMATOPATHOLOGY 146 HISTOCHEMISTRY 147 IMMUNOHISTOCHEMISTRY (IHC) 148 IMMUNO?UORESCENCE (IF) 149 MOLECULAR PATHOLOGY 1410 CYTOGENETICS (CLINICAL GENETICS) 1411 BIOCHEMICAL METHODS 1412 MEDICAL MICROBIOLOGY 1413 MICROBIAL CULTURE 1414 FLOW CYTOMETRY 1415 ELECTRON MICROSCOPY 1416 FORENSIC PATHOLOGY/AUTOPSY 1417 ORAL AND MAXILLOFACIAL PATHOLOGY 15 SUMMARY BIBLIOGRAPHY 2 HOMEOSTASIS 21 INTRODUCTION 22 HOMEOSTASIS AT THE CELLULAR, TISSUE, AND ORGAN LEVELS 23 REGULATION AND MECHANISMS OF HOMEOSTASIS 24 HOMEOSTATIC MECHANISMS (FEEDBACK MECHANISMS) 241 POSITIVE FEEDBACK 242 NEGATIVE FEEDBACK 25 ORAL HOMEOSTASIS 26 HOMEOSTASIS AND AGEING 27 NUTRITION AND HOMEOSTASIS 28 ENVIRONMENT AND HOMEOSTASIS 29 SUMMARY CONTENTS 3 DISEASE, DISORDER, AND DISABILITY 31 INTRODUCTION 32 DISEASE: DE?NITION AND CHARACTERISTICS 321 AETIOLOGY 322 PATHOGENESIS 323 MORPHOLOGICAL, FUNCTIONAL, AND CLINICAL MANIFESTATIONS 33 EPIDEMIOLOGY 34 CLASSI?CATION OF THE DISEASE 35 NUMERICAL DISEASE-CODING SYSTEMS 36 DISORDER (MEDICAL DISORDER) 361 MENTAL DISORDER 362 PHYSICAL DISORDER 363 GENETIC DISORDER 364 EMOTIONAL AND BEHAVIOURAL DISORDERS (EBDS) 37 DISABILITY 38 SUMMARY 4 CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION, CELL DIVISION AND CELL CYCLE, CELL TYPES AND STEM CELLS 41 INTRODUCTION 42 CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION 421 THE PLASMA MEMBRANE 422 CYTOPLASM 43 INTERCELLULAR JUNCTIONS 431 TIGHT JUNCTIONS 432 GAP JUNCTIONS 433 DESMOSOMES/HEMIDESMOSOMES 44 CELL COMMUNICATION (CELL SIGNALLING) 45 SIGNALLING PATHWAYS 451 AUTOCRINE SIGNALLING 452 ENDOCRINE SIGNALLING 453 PARACRINE SIGNALLING 454 JUXTACRINE SIGNALLING 46 INTERACTION WITH EXTRACELLULAR MATRIX 47 CELL DIVISION AND THE CELL CYCLE 471 INTERPHASE 472 MITOTIC PHASE 48 CONTROL AND REGULATION OF THE CELL CYCLE 49 CELL TYPES IN THE HUMAN BODY 410 STEM CELLS 4101 TOTIPOTENT STEM CELLS 4102 PLURIPOTENT STEM CELLS (PSCS) 4103 MULTIPOTENT STEM CELLS 4104 UNIPOTENT STEM CELLS 4105 OLIGOPOTENT STEM CELLS 411 SUMMARY 5 CELLULAR PATHOLOGY 51 INTRODUCTION 52 CELL INJURY 53 CAUSES OF CELL INJURY 531 HYPOXIA (OXYGEN DEPRIVATION) 532 MECHANICAL TRAUMA 533 EXTREME HEAT (THERMAL BURN) 534 EXTREME COLD (CRYOGENIC BURN) 535 IONISING RADIATION 536 NON-IONISING RADIATION 537 ELECTRICAL SHOCK 538 CHEMICAL INJURY 539 THERAPEUTIC AND ILLICIT DRUG INJURY 5310 INJURY DUE TO INFECTIOUS AGENTS 5311 NUTRITIONAL IMBALANCES 5312 IMMUNOLOGICALLY MEDIATED CELL INJURY 5313 GENETIC AND METABOLIC CELL INJURY 5314 INJURY FROM FREE RADICALS 54 MECHANISMS OF CELL INJURY 541 PLASMA MEMBRANE DAMAGE 542 MITOCHONDRIAL DAMAGE 543 ADENOSINE TRIPHOSPHATE (ATP) DEPLETION 544 CYTOSOLIC CALCIUM DERANGEMENT 545 NUCLEIC ACID DAMAGE 55 RESPONSES TO CELL INJURY 551 REVERSIBLE CELL INJURY 552 IRREVERSIBLE CELL INJURY 56 CELLULAR ADAPTATION 561 HYPERTROPHY 562 HYPERPLASIA 563 ATROPHY 564 METAPLASIA 565 DYSPLASIA 57 CELLULAR DEGENERATION 571 HYDROPIC DEGENERATION (CLOUDY SWELLING/VACUOLAR DEGENERATION) 572 FATTY CHANGE (FATTY DEGENERATION) 573 HYALINE CHANGE 574 MUCOID DEGENERATION (MUCINOUS DEGENERATION, MYXOMATOUS DEGENERATION) 575 FIBRINOID DEGENERATION (FIBRINOID NECROSIS) 58 CELLULAR ACCUMULATIONS AND PATHOLOGIC CALCI?CATION 581 ABNORMAL ACCUMULATIONS OF LIPIDS 582 ABNORMAL ACCUMULATION OF PROTEINS 583 ACCUMULATION OF GLYCOGEN 584 ACCUMULATION OF PIGMENTS 585 PATHOLOGIC CALCI?CATION 59 CELL DEATH 591 APOPTOSIS 592 NECROSIS 510 SUMMARY INFLAMMATION: AN OVERVIEW 61 INTRODUCTION 62 AETIOLOGY 63 CARDINAL SIGNS OF IN?AMMATION 64 CELLS OF THE IN?AMMATORY RESPONSE, THEIR LOCATION, AND PRIMARY ROLE 65 CLASSI?CATION OF IN?AMMATION 651 ACUTE IN?AMMATION 652 CHRONIC IN?AMMATION 653 TYPES OF CHRONIC IN?AMMATION 66 MORPHOLOGIC PATTERNS OF IN?AMMATION 661 FIBRINOUS IN?AMMATION 662 SUPPURATIVE (PURULENT) IN?AMMATION 663 SEROUS IN?AMMATION 664 ULCERATIVE IN?AMMATION 665 CATARRHAL IN?AMMATION 666 PSEUDOMEMBRANOUS IN?AMMATION 667 GRANULOMATOUS IN?AMMATION 67 SUMMARY 7 HEALING: TISSUE REGENERATION AND REPAIR 71 INTRODUCTION 72 TYPES OF CELLS AND TISSUES INVOLVED IN THE HEALING PROCESS 73 HEALING BY REGENERATION 74 HEALING BY REPAIR 75 THE ROLE OF CYTOKINES, GROWTH FACTORS, AND EXTRACELLULAR MATRIX 76 WOUND HEALING 77 CATEGORIES OF CUTANEOUS WOUND HEALING 771 HEALING BY FIRST INTENTION (PRIMARY UNION) 772 HEALING BY SECOND INTENTION (SECONDARY INTENTION) 78 HEALING OF ORAL MUCOSAL WOUNDS 79 FRACTURE HEALING 791 STAGES IN FRACTURE HEALING (BONE REGENERATION) (FIG 72) 710 TOOTH EXTRACTION SOCKET HEALING 711 FACTORS THAT IN?UENCE WOUND HEALING 7111 LOCAL FACTORS 7112 SYSTEMIC FACTORS 712 COMPLICATIONS OF WOUND HEALING 713 SUMMARY 8 GENETIC AND DEVELOPMENTAL PATHOLOGY 81 INTRODUCTION 82 CHROMOSOMES AND GENES 83 GENOTYPE AND PHENOTYPE 84 INHERITANCE PATTERNS 841 SINGLE-GENE INHERITANCE (MENDELIAN INHERITANCE) 842 SEX-LINKED INHERITANCE 843 MITOCHONDRIAL INHERITANCE 844 MULTIFACTORIAL INHERITANCE 85 GENETIC DISORDERS 851 MONOGENIC DISORDERS 852 POLYGENIC DISORDERS (MULTIFACTORIAL INHERITANCE DISORDERS) 853 CHROMOSOMAL DISORDERS (CYTOGENETIC DISORDERS) 86 MUTATIONS 87 CONGENITAL AND DEVELOPMENTAL DISORDERS 88 SUMMARY 9 INFECTIOUS AND COMMUNICABLE DISEASES: AN OVERVIEW 91 INTRODUCTION 92 THE CONCEPT OF CHAIN OF INFECTION 93 ROUTES AND MODES OF ENTRY OF MICROBES 931 DIRECT TRANSMISSION 932 INDIRECT TRANSMISSION 94 HOST DEFENCES AGAINST INFECTION 95 TYPES OF INFECTIOUS AGENTS AND MECHANISM OF INFECTIONS 951 BACTERIA 952 VIRUSES 953 FUNGI 954 PROTOZOA 955 HELMINTHS 956 PRIONS 96 SUMMARY 10 AN INTRODUCTION TO IMMUNOLOGY AND IMMUNOPATHOLOGY 101 INTRODUCTION 102 THE IMMUNE SYSTEM: INNATE AND ADAPTIVE IMMUNITY 1021 INNATE IMMUNITY 1022 ADAPTIVE IMMUNITY 1023 T CELLS AND ANTIGEN PRESENTING CELLS(APCS) 1024 B CELLS 103 ANTIBODY-MEDIATED VERSUS CELL- MEDIATED IMMUNITY 104 PASSIVE VS ACTIVE IMMUNISATION 105 IMMUNOPATHOLOGY 1051 HYPERSENSITIVITY REACTIONS 1052 AUTOIMMUNITY 1053 IMMUNODE?CIENCY 106 IN?AMMATION 107 CONCLUSIONS AND SUMMARY 11 NEOPLASIA AND CARCINOGENESIS 111 INTRODUCTION 112 CLASSI?CATION OF NEOPLASMS 1121 BENIGN NEOPLASMS 1122 MALIGNANT NEOPLASMS 113 OTHER TUMOUR TERMINOLOGIES 114 NON-NEOPLASTIC TUMOUR-LIKE LESIONS 115 EPIDEMIOLOGY OF CANCER 116 AETIOLOGY OF CANCER 1161 CHEMICAL CARCINOGENS 1162 PHYSICAL CARCINOGENS 1163 VIRAL CARCINOGENS (ONCOGENIC VIRUSES) 1164 BACTERIA, FUNGI, AND PARASITES AS CARCINOGENS 117 ROLE OF HOST FACTORS IN CARCINOGENESIS 118 CLINICAL EFFECTS OF NEOPLASMS 119 CANCER STAGING 1191 PRIMARY TUMOUR (T) 1192 REGIONAL LYMPH NODES (N) 1193 DISTANT METASTASIS (M) 1110 SPREAD OF CANCER: METASTASIS 1111 CANCER DIAGNOSIS: INVESTIGATIONS 11111 HISTOPATHOLOGY AND CYTOPATHOLOGY 11112 HISTOLOGICAL GRADING OF CANCER 11113 TUMOUR MARKER TESTS 11114 HISTOCHEMISTRY 11115 IMMUNOHISTOCHEMISTRY (IHC) 11116 FLOW CYTOMETRY 11117 MOLECULAR DIAGNOSIS 11118 IMAGING TESTS 11119 DIAGNOSTIC SURGERY: SENTINEL NODE MAPPING 1112 CARCINOGENESIS 11121 HOST DEFENCE AGAINST CANCER 11122 STAGES OF CANCER DEVELOPMENT 11123 MOLECULAR AND GENETIC BASIS OF CANCER 11124 HALLMARKS OF CARCINOGENESIS 11125 ROLE OF TUMOUR SUPPRESSOR GENES, CELLULAR PROTO- ONCOGENES, AND GROWTH FACTORS IN CARCINOGENESIS 1113 SUMMARY 12 ENVIRONMENTAL AND NUTRITIONAL PATHOLOGY 121 INTRODUCTION 122 ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION 123 EFFECTS OF TOBACCO, ALCOHOL, AND SUBSTANCE ABUSE 124 EFFECTS OF RADIATION 125 NUTRITION AND MALNUTRITION 1251 NUTRITIONAL DE?CIENCIES 1252 NUTRIENT EXCESSES 126 SUMMARY 13 HEMODYNAMIC DISORDERS 131 INTRODUCTION 132 HYPEREMIA AND CONGESTION 133 HAEMORRHAGE 134 HAEMOSTASIS 135 DISORDERS OF HAEMOSTASIS 136 LABORATORY DIAGNOSIS OF HAEMOSTATIC DISORDERS 137 THROMBOSIS 138 ARTERIAL OR VENOUS BLOOD STASIS AND TURBULENCE 139 HYPERCOAGULABLE STATE 1310 ARTERIAL THROMBOSIS 1311 DISSEMINATED INTRAVASCULAR COAGULATION (DIC) 1312 EMBOLISM 1313 PULMONARY EMBOLISM 1314 SYSTEMIC THROMBOEMBOLISM 1315 INFARCTION 1316 OEDEMA 1317 SHOCK 1318 SUMMARY 14 IMBALANCES IN FLUIDS AND ELECTROLYTES, ACIDS AND BASES: AN OVERVIEW 141 INTRODUCTION 142 FLUID BALANCE 143 ELECTROLYTE BALANCE 144 ACID-BASE BALANCE 145 ABNORMALITIES IN ACID-BASE BALANCE 1451 ALKALOSIS 146 SUMMARY 15 AGEING 151 INTRODUCTION 152 THEORIES OF AGEING 1521 THE PROGRAMMED THEORIES 1522 THE ERROR (DAMAGE) THEORY 153 NORMAL AGEING 154 AGE-RELATED DISEASES 155 SUMMARY 16 PAIN: BASIC CONCEPTS 161 INTRODUCTION 162 PATHOPHYSIOLOGY OF PAIN 163 CLASSI?CATION OF PAIN 1631 NOCICEPTIVE PAIN 1632 NEUROPATHIC PAIN 1633 MIXED PAIN 1634 PSYCHOGENIC PAIN 164 CONDITIONS ASSOCIATED WITH PERIPHERAL AND CENTRAL NEUROPATHIC PAIN 165 SUMMARY 17 DENTAL, ORAL, MAXILLOFACIAL AND SALIVARY GLAND DISEASES: AN OVERVIEW 171 INTRODUCTION 172 COMMON DEVELOPMENTAL DISORDERS 173 DENTAL CARIES AND PATHOLOGY OF THE DENTAL PULP 174 OTHER ACQUIRED DENTAL DISORDERS 175 PERIODONTAL DISEASES 176 MUCOSAL DISEASES 177 DISEASES OF THE JAW BONES 1771 JAW CYSTS 1772 JAW TUMOURS 1773 FIBRO-OSSEOUS LESIONS 178 DISEASES OF THE SALIVARY GLANDS 1781 MEDICATION-INDUCED HYPOSALIVATION AND XEROSTOMIA 179 SUMMARY 18 PATHOLOGY OF ORGAN SYSTEMS OF THE BODY 181 INTRODUCTION 182 GASTROINTESTINAL DISEASES 1821 GASTROESOPHAGEAL RE?UX DISEASE (GORD) 183 LIVER DISEASES 1831 VIRAL HEPATITIS 184 CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASES 185 RESPIRATORY DISEASES 186 DISEASES OF THE BLOOD AND BLOOD- FORMING ORGANS 1861 ANAEMIAS 1862 HAEMOGLOBINOPATHIES (SICKLE CELL ANAEMIA AND THALASSEMIA) 1863 DISORDERS OF COAGULATION 187 DISORDERS OF THE IMMUNE SYSTEM 1871 HYPERSENSITIVITY REACTIONS 188 DISEASES OF THE RENAL SYSTEM 189 DISEASES OF THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM AND METABOLISM 1810 DISEASES OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM 1811 DISEASES OF BONE AND JOINTS 1812 PSYCHIATRIC DISORDERS 1813 SUMMARY