WELDING IN ENERGY-RELATED PROJECTS
1 1 INTRODUCTION 1 2 CONDITIONS TO CREATE METALLIC BONDING 1 2 1 ACTIVATION OF SURFACES 1 2 2 ELIMINATION OF OBSTACLES TO BOND CREATION 1 2 3 HOW CAN WE CLASSIFY THE VARIOUS WELDING PROCESSES? 1 3 INDUSTRIAL WELDING PROCESSES 1 3 1 PROCESSES USING LOCAL FUSION OF COMPONENTS WITHOUT MECHANICAL ACTION 1 3 2 PROCESSES USING LOCAL FUSION OF COMPONENTS WITH MECHANICAL ACTION 1 3 3 PROCESSES USING HEATING WITHOUT FUSION BUT WITH MECHANICAL ACTION 1 3 4 PROCESSES USING MECHANICAL ACTION WITHOUT HEATING 1 4 BIBLIOGRAPHY CHAPTER 2 HIGH DENSITY ENERGY BEAM WELDING PROCESSES: ELECTRON BEAM AND LASER BEAM 2 1 WELDING PROPERTIES USING HIGH DENSITY ENERGY BEAMS 2 2 LASER BEAM WELDING 2 2 1 HISTORY 2 2 2 PRINCIPLE 2 2 3 VARIOUS LASER TYPES 2 2 4 LASER SYSTEMS 2 2 5 IMPLEMENTATION OF LASER BEAM WELDING 2 3 ELECTRON BEAM WELDING 2 3 1 HISTORY 2 3 2 PRINCIPLE 2 3 3 EQUIPMENT 2 3 4 DESIGN AND PREPARATION OF THE PARTS 2 4 METALLURGY OF HIGH DENSITY ENERGY BEAM WELDING 2 4 1 STEELS 2 4 2 ALUMINUM ALLOYS 2 4 3 NICKEL-BASED ALLOYS 2 4 4 TITANIUM-BASED ALLOYS 2 4 5 ZIRCONIUM-BASED ALLOYS 2 4 6 COPPER-BASED ALLOYS 2 5 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF WELDED JOINTS 2 6 THE QUALITY OF THE ASSEMBLIES 2 6 1 WELD DEFECTS 2 6 2 WELD INSPECTION METHODS 2 6 3 STANDARDIZATION AND QUALIFICATION OF THE WELDING OPERATING MODE 2 7 ECONOMIC ASPECTS 2 7 1 COST OF AN ELECTRON BEAM MACHINE 2 7 2 COST OF A LASER BEAM MACHINE 2 8 SAFETY 2 9 EXAMPLES OF INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS 2 9 1 ELECTRON BEAM WELDING 2 9 2 LASER BEAM WELDING 2 10 DEVELOPMENT PROSPECTS 2 11 BIBLIOGRAPHY CHAPTER 3 THERMAL, METALLURGICAL AND MECHANICAL PHENOMENA IN THE HEAT AFFECTED ZONE 3 1 THERMAL ASPECTS RELATED TO WELDING 3 1 1 MAXIMUM TEMPERATURE ATTAINED IN THE HAZ 3 1 2 COOLING PARAMETER IN THE HAZ 3 2 MICROSTRUCTURAL MODIFICATIONS IN THE HAZ: METALLURGICAL CONSEQUENCES OF THE THERMAL CYCLES OF WELDING 3 2 1 TRANSFORMATIONS IN THE HAZ DURING HEATING 3 2 2 TRANSFORMATIONS IN THE HAZ DURING COOLING 3 2 3 CASE OF MULTIPASS WELDING 3 2 4 COLD CRACKING 3 2 5 LAMELLAR TEARING 3 3 INFLUENCE OF THE THERMAL CYCLES ON THE MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF THE HAZ 3 3 1 MODIFICATIONS OF THE MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF HARDNESS OR TRACTION IN THE HAZ 3 3 2 TOUGHNESS PROPERTIES OF THE HAZ 3 3 3 RESIDUAL STRESSES ASSOCIATED WITH WELDING 3 3 4 INFLUENCE OF RESIDUAL STRESS RELIEVING HEAT TREATMENTS IN THE HAZ 3 4 BIBLIOGRAPHY CHAPTER 4 MOLTEN METAL 4 1 METALLURGICAL REMINDERS 4 2 MOLTEN METAL 4 2 1 THERMAL ASPECT 4 2 2 CHEMICAL ASPECT 4 2 3 MICROSTRUCTURES IN FERRITIC STEEL WELDS: RELATIONSHIP WITH IMPACT STRENGTH CHARACTERISTICS 4 3 PRINCIPAL WELDING DEFECTS 4 3 1 HOT CRACKING 4 3 2 COLD CRACKING 4 3 3 REHEAT CRACKING 4 3 4 POROSITIES 4 4 BIBLIOGRAPHY CHAPTER 5 WELDING PRODUCTS 5 1 COATED ELECTRODES 5 1 1 CONSTITUTION OF COATINGS: CONSEQUENCES 5 1 2 BASIC ELECTRODES AND DIFFUSIBLE HYDROGEN 5 2 FLUXES FOR SUBMERGED ARC WELDING 5 2 1 FUSED FLUXES AND GRANULAR FLUXES: ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES 5 2 2 ROLES OF FLUX: METALLURGICAL ASPECTS 5 3 WELDING GASES 5 3 1 WELDING PROCESSES UNDER A GAS FLUX WITH AN INFUSIBLE ELECTRODE 5 3 2 WELDING PROCESSES UNDER A GAS FLUX WITH A FUSIBLE ELECTRODE 5 4 CORED WIRES 5 4 1 MANUFACTURING PROCESSES 5 4 2 TYPES OF CORED WIRES 5 4 3 THE TITANIUM/BORON EFFECT IN RELATION TO RUTILE CORED WIRES 5 5 CHOICE OF WELDING PRODUCTS 5 6 WELDING PRODUCTS AND THE WELDER’S ENVIRONMENT 5 6 1 COATED ELECTRODES 5 6 2 GAS MIXTURES FOR TIG WELDING 5 6 3 GAS MIXTURES FOR GMAW 5 6 4 CORED WIRES 5 7 BIBLIOGRAPHY CHAPTER 6 FATIGUE STRENGTH OF WELDED JOINTS 6 1 FATIGUE STRENGTH 6 1 1 INTRODUCTION 6 1 2 FATIGUE FAILURE OF THE PRINCIPAL WELDED JOINTS 6 1 3 CONCEPT OF NOMINAL STRESS 6 1 4 FACTORS IN WELDED JOINT ENDURANCE 6 2 DIMENSIONING OF JOINTS IN MECHANIZED WELDING 6 2 1 POSITION OF THE PROBLEM 6 2 2 GENERAL METHOD (CURRENT REGULATIONS) 6 2 3 VERIFICATION METHODS 6 2 4 GEOMETRIC STRUCTURAL STRESS METHOD 6 3 BIBLIOGRAPHY CHAPTER 7 FRACTURE TOUGHNESS OF WELDED JOINTS 7 1 DUCTILE FRACTURE AND BRITTLE FRACTURE 7 2 EVALUATION OF FRACTURE RISKS IN METALLIC MATERIALS 7 2 1 DETERMINATION OF THE DUCTILE-BRITTLE TRANSITION TEMPERATURE 7 2 2 DETERMINATION OF A FRACTURE CRITERION IN THE ELASTIC LINEAR FIELD 7 2 3 FRACTURE CRITERIA IN THE ELASTO-PLASTIC FIELD 7 3 EVALUATION OF FRACTURE RISKS IN WELDED JOINTS 7 3 1 HETEROGENITIES OF THE WELD BEAD 7 3 2 CONDITIONS OF SPECIMEN TAKING 7 3 3 DETERMINATION OF THE DUCTILE-BRITTLE TRANSITION TEMPERATURE 7 3 4 VARIOUS METHODS OF TOUGHNESS EVALUATION 7 4 CONSEQUENCES OF HETEROGENITIES ON THE EVALUATION OF FRACTURE RISKS 7 4 1 MISMATCHING EFFECTS 7 4 2 INFLUENCE OF THE BASE MATERIAL 7 4 3 INFLUENCE OF FILLER METALS 7 4 4 IMPORTANCE OF WELDING CONDITIONS 7 4 5 EVALUATION AND TAKING ACCOUNT OF RESIDUAL STRESSES 7 5 BIBLIOGRAPHY CHAPTER 8 WELDING OF STEEL SHEETS, WITH AND WITHOUT SURFACE TREATMENTS 8 1 SPOT WELDING 8 1 1 PRINCIPLE 8 1 2 TESTS OF SPOT WELDABILITY 8 1 3 SPOT WELDABILITY OF THIN STEEL SHEETS 8 2 SEAM WELDING 8 2 1 MASH SEAM WELDING 8 2 2 OVERLAPPING SEAM WELDING 8 2 3 EXAMPLE APPLICATIONS STUDIED OR HANDLED WITH CUSTOMERS 8 3 LASER WELDING OF THIN SHEETS 8 3 1 PRINCIPLE OF KEYHOLE LASER WELDING 8 3 2 BUTT WELDING 8 3 3 LAPPED WELDING 8 4 ARC WELDING 8 4 1 TIG WELDING 8 4 2 MAG WELDING 8 5 BIBLIOGRAPHY CHAPTER 9 WELDING OF STEEL MECHANICAL COMPONENTS 9 1 INTRODUCTION 9 2 SPECIFICITIES OF WELDED BONDS IN MECHANICAL COMPONENTS 9 2 1 STANDARD WELDING PROCESSES AND GENERAL RECOMMENDATIONS 9 2 2 METALLURGICAL DEFECTS IN THE MOLTEN ZONE AND THE HAZ 9 2 3 WELDABILITY LIMITS FOR WELDING WITH AND WITHOUT REMELTING 9 3 PRINCIPAL TYPES OF WELDING FOR MECHANICAL COMPONENTS 9 3 1 ELECTRIC ARC WELDING AND ALTERNATIVES 9 3 2 WELDS WITH REDUCED HAZ USING HIGH DENSITY ENERGY SOURCES: LASER BEAM, EB, PLASMA 9 3 3 FRICTION WELDING 9 3 4 BUTT WELDING BY THE JOULE EFFECT 9 3 5 DIFFUSION WELDING IN THE SOLID PHASE 9 4 SPECIFICATIONS AND QUALITY CONTROL OF THE WELDINGS FOR THESE COMPONENTS 9 4 1 WELD QUALITY SPECIFICATIONS 9 4 2 THE QUALITY ASSURANCE PLAN OF THE WELD 9 5 DEVELOPMENTS AND TRENDS 9 5 1 EVOLUTION OF THE CONTEXT 9 5 2 FAVORED PROCESSES 9 6 CONCLUSIONS 9 7 BIBLIOGRAPHY CHAPTER 10 WELDING STEEL STRUCTURES 10 1 INTRODUCTION 10 1 1 HISTORY 10 1 2 APPLICATIONS 10 2 STEELS FOR STEEL STRUCTURES 10 2 1 GRADES AND QUALITIES 10 2 2 STEELS USED 10 3 STEEL CONSTRUCTION WELDING PROCESSES AND TECHNIQUES 10 3 1 TABLE OF THE USUAL PROCESSES 10 3 2 PRELIMINARY OPERATION: TACK WELD 10 3 3 PARTICULAR WELDING TECHNIQUES 10 3 4 USUAL WELDING POSITIONS 10 3 5 EDGE PREPARATION 10 4 WELDING DISTORTION 10 4 1 PRECAUTIONS IN EXECUTION 10 4 2 STRAIGHTENING 10 5 DEFECTS AND THEIR PREVENTION 10 5 1 CRACKS 10 5 2 FRACTURE 10 5 3 OTHER THERMAL AND MECHANICAL PRECAUTIONS 10 6 SPECIFICITIES OF NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING OF STEEL STRUCTURES 10 7 DEVELOPMENTAL PERSPECTIVES CHAPTER 11 WELDING HEAVY COMPONENTS IN THE NUCLEAR INDUSTRY 11 1 GENERAL PRESENTATION OF A PWR PRESSURE VESSEL 11 2 MAIN MATERIALS USED FOR MANUFACTURING 11 2 1 PRINCIPLE OF MATERIAL CHOICE – CONSTRUCTION CODE 11 2 2 LOW ALLOYED STEELS FOR PRESSURE VESSELS 11 2 3 AUSTENITIC STAINLESS STEEL CIRCUITS 11 2 4 NICKEL ALLOY PARTS 11 3 WELDING OF LARGE LOW ALLOY STEEL COMPONENTS 11 3 1 PROPERTIES AIMED FOR 11 3 2 PROCEDURAL DESCRIPTION 11 3 3 WELDING WITH COATED ELECTRODES 11 4 CLADDING 11 4 1 CLADDING METHOD 11 4 2 CLADDING INSPECTION 11 5 WELDING OF STAINLESS STEEL CIRCUITS 11 6 DISSIMILAR METAL INTERFACES 11 7 WELDING OF STEAM GENERATOR PIPES 11 8 CONCLUSIONS CHAPTER 12 WELDING STAINLESS STEELS 12 1 DEFINITIONS 12 2 PRINCIPAL STAINLESS STEEL FAMILIES 12 3 METALLURGICAL STRUCTURES 12 4 CONSTITUTION DIAGRAMS 12 4 1 INTRODUCTION 12 4 2 CALCULATION OF THE EQUIVALENT FORMULAE 12 4 3 CONSTITUTION DIAGRAMS 12 5 WELDING FERRITIC STAINLESS STEELS 12 5 1 INTRODUCTION 12 5 2 RISKS INCURRED IN WELDING 12 5 3 STABILIZATION 12 5 4 RISKS OF EMBRITTLEMENT 12 5 5 FILLER PRODUCTS 12 5 6 SHIELDING GASES 12 5 7 SUMMARY: PARTIAL CONCLUSION 12 6 WELDING OF MARTENSITIC STAINLESS STEELS 12 6 1 INTRODUCTION 12 6 2 LIST OF MARTENSITIC STAINLESS STEELS 12 6 3 EFFECT OF THE ELEMENTS C, CR AND NI ON THE J LOOP 12 6 4 METALLURGICAL WELDABILITY OF MARTENSITIC STAINLESS STEELS 12 6 5 CONCLUSION: PARTIAL SUMMARY 12 7 WELDING OF AUSTENITIC STAINLESS STEELS 12 7 1 INTRODUCTION 12 7 2 RISKS INCURRED DURING WELDING 12 7 3 CARBIDE PRECIPITATION 12 7 4 HOT CRACKING 12 7 5 THE SIGMA PHASE 12 7 6 FILLER PRODUCTS 12 7 7 SHIELDING GAS 12 8 THE WELDING OF AUSTENO-FERRITIC STAINLESS STEELS (DUPLEX) 12 8 1 INTRODUCTION 12 8 2 RISKS INCURRED IN WELDING 12 8 3 PRINCIPAL AUSTENO-FERRITIC STAINLESS STEELS 12 8 4 WELDABILITY OF AUSTENO-FERRITIC STEELS 12 8 5 FILLER PRODUCTS 12 8 6 SHIELDING GASES 12 9 HETEROGENOUS WELDING 12 9 1 REMINDER OF DEFINITIONS 12 9 2 TREATMENT AND FORECAST OF HETEROGENOUS WELDS 12 10 FINISHING OF WELDS 12 11 GLOSSARY 12 12 BIBLIOGRAPHY CHAPTER 13 WELDING ALUMINUM ALLOYS 13 1 METALLURGY OF WELDING 13 1 1 WELDABILITY OF ALUMINUM ALLOYS (STEELS/ALUMINUM COMPARISON) 13 1 2 FILLER METALS 13 2 WELDING TECHNIQUES 13 2 1 INTRODUCTION 13 2 2 ARC WELDING PROCESSES (TIG-MIG) 13 2 3 ELECTRIC RESISTANCE WELDING 13 2 4 FLASH WELDING 13 2 5 FRICTION WELDING AND FRICTION STIR WELDING 13 2 6 ELECTRON BEAM WELDING 13 2 7 LASER WELDING 13 2 8 OTHER TECHNIQUES 13 3 PREPARATION AND USE OF SEMI-FINISHED ALUMINUM WELDING PRODUCTS 13 3 1 PARTICULARITIES OF ALUMINUM ALLOY SURFACES 13 3 2 STORAGE 13 3 3 SURFACE PREPARATION 13 3 4 CLEANING OF THE WELD BEADS 13 4 DEFORMATIONS 13 4 1 INTRODUCTION 13 4 2 STEEL/ALUMINUM COMPARISON (DEFORMATION DUE TO HEATING) 13 4 3 SHRINKAGE 13 4 4 BASIC RULES 13 5 DIMENSIONING OF THE WELDED STRUCTURES 13 5 1 STATIC 13 5 2 FATIGUE DIMENSIONING 13 5 3 RULES GOVERNING THE OPTIMAL USE OF WELDED STRUCTURES 13 6 WELDING DEFECTS 13 7 HEALTH AND SAFETY 13 8 BIBLIOGRAPHY CHAPTER 14 STANDARDIZATION: ORGANIZATION AND QUALITY CONTROL IN WELDING 14 1 INTRODUCTION 14 2 STANDARDS OF GENERAL ORGANIZATION OF QUALITY 14 2 1 PRESENTATION 14 2 2 PRINCIPLES 14 2 3 ANALYSIS 14 3 STANDARDS FOR WELDING PROCEDURE QUALIFICATION 14 4 NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING STANDARDS 14 5 CONCLUSION