THE GAS ENGINEER'S POCKET BOOK
CONTENTS ESTIMATION OF PLANT ELECTRICAL LOAD PRELIMINARY SINGLE-LINE DIAGRAMS LOAD SCHEDULES WORKED EXAMPLE DETERMINATION OF POWER SUPPLY CAPACITY STANDBY CAPACITY OF PLAIN CABLE FEEDERS AND TRANSFORMER FEEDERS RATING OF GENERATORS IN RELATION TO THEIR PRIME MOVERS OPERATION AT LOW AMBIENT TEMPERATURES UPGRADING OF PRIME MOVERS RATING OF MOTORS IN RELATION TO THEIR DRIVEN MACHINES DEVELOPMENT OF SINGLE-LINE DIAGRAMS THE KEY SINGLE LINE DIAGRAM INDIVIDUAL SWITCHBOARDS AND MOTOR CONTROL CENTRES COORDINATION WITH OTHER DISCIPLINES PROCESS ENGINEERS MECHANICAL ENGINEERS INSTRUMENT ENGINEERS COMMUNICATION AND SAFETY ENGINEERS FACILITIES AND OPERATIONS ENGINEERS REFERENCE GAS TURBINE DRIVEN GENERATORS CLASSI?CATION OF GAS TURBINE ENGINES AERO-DERIVATIVE GAS TURBINES LIGHT INDUSTRIAL GAS TURBINES HEAVY INDUSTRIAL GAS TURBINES SINGLE AND TWO-SHAFT GAS TURBINES FUEL FOR GAS TURBINES ENERGY OBTAINED FROM A GAS TURBINE EFFECT OF AN INEF?CIENT COMPRESSOR AND TURBINE MAXIMUM WORK DONE ON THE GENERATOR VARIATION OF SPECI?C HEAT EFFECT OF DUCTING PRESSURE DROP AND COMBUSTION CHAMBER PRESSURE DROP HEAT RATE AND FUEL CONSUMPTION POWER OUTPUT FROM A GAS TURBINE MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL POWER LOSSES FACTORS TO BE CONSIDERED AT THE DESIGN STAGE OF A POWER PLANT STARTING METHODS FOR GAS TURBINES SPEED GOVERNING OF GAS TURBINES OPEN-LOOP SPEED-TORQUE CHARACTERISTIC CLOSED-LOOP SPEED-POWER CHARACTERISTIC GOVERNING SYSTEMS FOR GAS TURBINES LOAD SHARING BETWEEN DROOP-GOVERNED GAS TURBINES LOAD SHARING CONTROLLERS MATHEMATICAL MODELLING OF GAS TURBINE SPEED GOVERNING SYSTEMS MODERN PRACTICE TYPICAL PARAMETER VALUES FOR SPEED GOVERNING SYSTEMS REFERENCES FURTHER READING SYNCHRONOUS GENERATORS AND MOTORS COMMON ASPECTS BETWEEN GENERATORS AND MOTORS SIMPLI?ED THEORY OF OPERATION OF A GENERATOR STEADY STATE ARMATURE REACTION TRANSIENT STATE ARMATURE REACTION SUB-TRANSIENT STATE ARMATURE REACTION PHASOR DIAGRAM OF VOLTAGES AND CURRENTS THE DERIVED REACTANCES SENSITIVITY OF XMD, XA, XF AND XKD TO CHANGES IN PHYSICAL DIMENSIONS ACTIVE AND REACTIVE POWER DELIVERED FROM A GENERATOR A GENERAL CASE THE PARTICULAR CASE OF A SALIENT POLE GENERATOR A SIMPLER CASE OF A SALIENT POLE GENERATOR THE POWER VERSUS ANGLE CHART OF A SALIENT POLE GENERATOR CHOICE OF VOLTAGES FOR GENERATORS TYPICAL PARAMETERS OF GENERATORS CONSTRUCTION FEATURES OF HIGH VOLTAGE GENERATORS AND INDUCTION MOTORS ENCLOSURE REACTANCES STATOR WINDINGS TERMINAL BOXES COOLING METHODS BEARINGS AUTOMATIC VOLTAGE REGULATION MEASUREMENT CIRCUITS ERROR SENSING CIRCUIT POWER AMPLI?ER MAIN EXCITER IEEE STANDARD AVR MODELS DETERMINING OF SATURATION CONSTANTS TYPICAL PARAMETER VALUES FOR AVR SYSTEMS INDUCTION MOTORS PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION OF THE THREE-PHASE MOTOR ESSENTIAL CHARACTERISTICS MOTOR TORQUE VERSUS SPEED CHARACTERISTIC MOTOR STARTING CURRENT VERSUS SPEED CHARACTERISTIC LOAD TORQUE VERSUS SPEED CHARACTERISTIC SENSITIVITY OF CHARACTERISTICS TO CHANGES IN RESISTANCES AND REACTANCES TYPICAL IMPEDANCE DATA FOR TWO-POLE AND FOUR-POLE INDUCTION MOTORS REPRESENTING THE DEEP-BAR EFFECT BY TWO PARALLEL BRANCHES CONSTRUCTION OF INDUCTION MOTORS DERATING FACTORS MATCHING THE MOTOR RATING TO THE DRIVEN MACHINE RATING EFFECT OF THE SUPPLY VOLTAGE ON RATINGS EFFECT OF THE SYSTEM FAULT LEVEL CABLE VOLT-DROP CONSIDERATIONS CRITICAL TIMES FOR MOTORS METHODS OF STARTING INDUCTION MOTORS STAR-DELTA METHOD KORNDORFER AUTO-TRANSFORMER METHOD SOFT-START POWER ELECTRONICS METHOD SERIES REACTOR METHOD PART WINDING METHOD TRANSFORMERS OPERATING PRINCIPLES EF?CIENCY OF A TRANSFORMER REGULATION OF A TRANSFORMER THREE-PHASE TRANSFORMER WINDING ARRANGEMENTS CONSTRUCTION OF TRANSFORMERS CONSERVATOR AND SEALED TYPE TANKS TRANSFORMER INRUSH CURRENT SWITCHGEAR AND MOTOR CONTROL CENTRES TERMINOLOGY IN COMMON USE CONSTRUCTION MAIN BUSBARS EARTHING BUSBARS INCOMING AND BUSBAR SECTION SWITCHING DEVICE FORMS OF SEPARATION AMBIENT TEMPERATURE DERATING FACTOR RATED NORMAL CURRENT FAULT MAKING PEAK CURRENT FUNDAMENTAL AC PART DC PART DOUBLE FREQUENCY AC PART FAULT BREAKING CURRENT FAULT WITHSTAND DUTY SWITCHING DEVICES OUTGOING SWITCHING DEVICE FOR SWITCHGEAR OUTGOING SWITCHING DEVICE FOR MOTOR CONTROL CENTRES FUSES FOR MOTOR CONTROL CENTRE OUTGOING CIRCUITS SAFETY INTERLOCKING DEVICES CONTROL AND INDICATION DEVICES RESTARTING AND REACCELERATING OF MOTORS MICRO-COMPUTER BASED SYSTEMS MOULDED CASE CIRCUIT BREAKERS COMPARISON WITH FUSES OPERATING CHARACTERISTICS CUT-OFF CURRENT VERSUS PROSPECTIVE CURRENT I-SQUARED-T CHARACTERISTIC COMPLETE AND PARTIAL COORDINATION OF CASCADED CIRCUIT BREAKERS WORKED EXAMPLE FOR COORDINATION OF CASCADED CIRCUIT BREAKERS COST AND ECONOMICS FUSES GENERAL COMMENTS OPERATION OF A FUSE IN?UENCE OF THE CIRCUIT X-TO-R RATIO THE I 2T CHARACTERISTIC CABLES, WIRES AND CABLE INSTALLATION PRACTICES ELECTRICALLY CONDUCTING MATERIALS USED IN THE CONSTRUCTION OF CABLES COPPER AND ALUMINIUM TIN PHOSPHOR BRONZE GALVANISED STEEL LEAD ELECTRICALLY NON-CONDUCTING MATERIALS USED IN THE CONSTRUCTION OF CABLES DE?NITION OF BASIC TERMINOLOGY COMPOSITION OF POWER AND CONTROL CABLES COMPOSITIONAL NOTATION CONDUCTOR CONDUCTOR SEMICONDUCTING SCREEN INSULATION INSULATION SEMICONDUCTOR SCREEN INNER SHEATH LEAD SHEATHING ARMOURING OUTER SHEATH CURRENT RATINGS OF POWER CABLES CONTINUOUS LOAD CURRENT CONTINUOUS RATED CURRENT OF A CABLE VOLT-DROP WITHIN A CABLE PROTECTION AGAINST OVERLOADING CURRENT CABLES WITH ENHANCED PERFORMANCE FIRE RETARDANCE FIRE RESISTANCE EMISSION OF TOXIC GASES AND SMOKE APPLICATION OF ?RE RETARDANT AND ?RE RESISTANT CABLES 10 HAZARDOUS AREA CLASSI?CATION AND THE SELECTION OF EQUIPMENT HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENTS PRESENT SITUATION ELEMENTS OF HAZARDOUS AREA CLASSI?CATION MIXTURES OF GASES, VAPOURS AND AIR HAZARDOUS AREA ZONES NON-HAZARDOUS AREA ZONE 2 HAZARDOUS AREA ZONE 1 HAZARDOUS AREA ZONE 0 HAZARDOUS AREA ADJACENT HAZARDOUS ZONES TYPES OF PROTECTION FOR HAZARDOUS AREAS TYPE OF PROTECTION ‘D’ TYPE OF PROTECTION ‘E’ TYPE OF PROTECTION ‘I’ TYPE OF PROTECTION ‘M’ TYPE OF PROTECTION ‘N’ AND ‘N’ TYPE OF PROTECTION ‘O’ TYPE OF PROTECTION ‘P’ TYPE OF PROTECTION ‘Q’ TYPE OF PROTECTION ‘S’ 10510 TYPE OF PROTECTION ‘DE’ TYPES OF PROTECTION FOR INGRESS OF WATER AND SOLID PARTICLES EUROPEAN PRACTICE AMERICAN PRACTICE CERTI?CATION OF HAZARDOUS AREA EQUIPMENT MARKING OF EQUIPMENT NAMEPLATES 11 FAULT CALCULATIONS AND STABILITY STUDIES INTRODUCTION CONSTANT VOLTAGE SOURCE – HIGH VOLTAGE CONSTANT VOLTAGE SOURCE – LOW VOLTAGE NON-CONSTANT VOLTAGE SOURCES – ALL VOLTAGE LEVELS CALCULATION OF FAULT CURRENT DUE TO FAULTS AT THE TERMINALS OF A GENERATOR PRE-FAULT OR INITIAL CONDITIONS CALCULATION OF FAULT CURRENT – RMS SYMMETRICAL VALUES CALCULATE THE SUB-TRANSIENT SYMMETRICAL RMS FAULT CURRENT CONTRIBUTIONS CALCULATE THE SUB-TRANSIENT PEAK FAULT CURRENT CONTRIBUTIONS BREAKING DUTY CURRENT COMPUTER PROGRAMS FOR CALCULATING FAULT CURRENTS CALCULATION OF FAULT CURRENT – RMS AND PEAK ASYMMETRICAL VALUES SIMPLEST CASE THE CIRCUIT X-TO-R RATIO IS KNOWN DETAILED GENERATOR DATA IS AVAILABLE MOTOR CONTRIBUTION TO FAULT CURRENTS THE USE OF REACTORS 1111 STABILITY STUDIES 11111 STEADY STATE STABILITY 11112 TRANSIENT STABILITY 12 PROTECTIVE RELAY COORDINATION INTRODUCTION TO OVERCURRENT COORDINATION RELAY NOTATION GENERATOR PROTECTION MAIN GENERATORS OVERCURRENT DIFFERENTIAL STATOR CURRENT RELAY FIELD FAILURE RELAY REVERSE ACTIVE POWER RELAY NEGATIVE PHASE SEQUENCE RELAY STATOR EARTH FAULT RELAYS OVER TERMINAL VOLTAGE UNDER TERMINAL VOLTAGE 12210 UNDER- AND OVERFREQUENCY EMERGENCY DIESEL GENERATORS FEEDER TRANSFORMER PROTECTION HIGH-SET OR INSTANTANEOUS CURRENT CHARACTERISTICS OF THE UPSTREAM SOURCE FEEDER CABLE PROTECTION OVERCURRENT PROTECTION SHORT-CIRCUIT PROTECTION EARTH FAULT PROTECTION BUSBAR PROTECTION IN SWITCHBOARDS BUSBAR ZONE PROTECTION UNDERVOLTAGE PROTECTION HIGH VOLTAGE INDUCTION MOTOR PROTECTION OVERLOADING OR THERMAL IMAGE INSTANTANEOUS OR HIGH-SET OVERCURRENT NEGATIVE PHASE SEQUENCE CORE BALANCE EARTH FAULT DIFFERENTIAL STATOR CURRENT STALLING CURRENT LIMITATION TO THE NUMBER OF SUCCESSIVE STARTS UNDERCURRENT HIGH WINDING TEMPERATURE 12710 HIGH BEARING TEMPERATURE 12711 EXCESSIVE VIBRATION LOW VOLTAGE INDUCTION MOTOR PROTECTION LOW VOLTAGE STATIC LOAD PROTECTION TIME-DELAYED OVERCURRENT 1210 MATHEMATICAL EQUATIONS FOR REPRESENTING STANDARD, VERY AND EXTREMELY INVERSE RELAYS 13 EARTHING AND SCREENING PURPOSE OF EARTHING ELECTRIC SHOCK DAMAGE TO EQUIPMENT ZERO REFERENCE POTENTIAL SITE LOCATIONS STEEL STRUCTURES LAND-BASED PLANTS CONCRETE AND BRICK-BUILT STRUCTURES DESIGN OF EARTHING SYSTEMS HIGH VOLTAGE SYSTEMS LOW VOLTAGE THREE-PHASE SYSTEMS IEC TYPES OF EARTHING SYSTEMS EARTH LOOP IMPEDANCE EARTHING RODS AND GRIDS CONSTRUCTION DETAILS RELATING TO EARTHING FRAMES, CASINGS AND CUBICLE STEELWORK SCREWED AND CLEARANCE HOLE ENTRIES EARTHING ONLY ONE END OF A CABLE SCREENING AND EARTHING OF CABLES USED IN ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS CAPACITANCE AND INDUCTANCE MECHANISMS SCREENING AGAINST EXTERNAL INTERFERENCE EARTHING OF SCREENS SCREENING OF HIGH FREQUENCIES POWER EARTHS, CUBICLE AND CLEAN EARTHS 14 VARIABLE SPEED ELECTRICAL DRIVERS ENVIRONMENT POWER SUPPLY ECONOMICS GROUP 1 METHODS SIMPLE VARIABLE VOLTAGE SUPPLIES POLE-CHANGING OF THE STATOR WINDING POLE AMPLITUDE MODULATED MOTORS WOUND ROTOR INDUCTION MOTORS GROUP 2 METHODS VARIABLE VOLTAGE CONSTANT FREQUENCY SUPPLY VARIABLE FREQUENCY VARIABLE VOLTAGE SUPPLY VARIABLE SPEED DC MOTORS ELECTRICAL SUBMERSIBLE PUMPS ELECTRICAL SUBMERSIBLE PUMP CONSTRUCTION CONTROL SYSTEMS FOR AC MOTORS 15 HARMONIC VOLTAGES AND CURRENTS RECTI?ERS DIODE BRIDGES THYRISTOR BRIDGES POWER TRANSISTOR BRIDGES DC MOTORS HARMONIC CONTENT OF THE SUPPLY SIDE CURRENTS SIMPLI?ED WAVEFORM OF A SIX-PULSE BRIDGE SIMPLI?ED COMMUTATION DELAY FOURIER COEF?CIENTS OF THE LINE CURRENT WAVEFORM SIMPLI?ED WAVEFORM OF A 12-PULSE BRIDGE INVERTERS BASIC METHOD OF OPERATION THREE-PHASE POWER INVERSION INDUCTION MOTOR FED FROM A VOLTAGE SOURCE INVERTER FILTERING OF POWER LINE HARMONICS PROTECTION, ALARMS AND INDICATION 16 COMPUTER BASED POWER MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS TYPICAL CON?GURATIONS MAIN FUNCTIONS HIGH-SPEED LOAD SHEDDING LOAD SHEDDING PRIORITY TABLE LOW-SPEED LOAD SHEDDING INHIBITING THE STARTING OF LARGE MOTORS VDU DISPLAY OF ONE-LINE DIAGRAMS ACTIVE POWER SHARING FOR GENERATORS ISOCHRONOUS CONTROL OF SYSTEM FREQUENCY REACTIVE POWER SHARING FOR GENERATORS ISOCHRONOUS CONTROL OF BUSBAR VOLTAGE 16310 CONDITION MONITORING OF THE GAS TURBINES 16311 SCHEDULING THE STARTING UP AND SHUTTING DOWN OF THE MAIN GENERATORS 16312 CONTROL OF THE REACCELERATION OF MOTOR LOADS 16313 AUTO-SYNCHRONISING OF THE MAIN GENERATORS 16314 DATA LOGGING, ARCHIVING, TRENDING DISPLAY, ALARMS, MESSAGES AND STATUS REPORTING 17 UNINTERRUPTIBLE POWER SUPPLIES AC UNINTERRUPTIBLE POWER SUPPLIES THE INVERTER COORDINATION OF THE SUB-CIRCUIT RATED CURRENT WITH THE INVERTER RATED CURRENT EARTH FAULT LEAKAGE DETECTION DC UNINTERRUPTIBLE POWER SUPPLIES UPS BATTERY CHARGERS BATTERIES REDUNDANCY CON?GURATIONS 18 MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS LIGHTING SYSTEMS TYPES OF LIGHTING ?TTINGS LEVELS OF ILLUMINATION NAVIGATION AIDS FLASHING MARKER LIGHTS WHITE AND RED ?ASHING LIGHTS NAVIGATION BUOYS IDENTI?CATION PANELS AIRCRAFT HAZARD LIGHTING HELICOPTER LANDING FACILITIES RADAR RADIO DIRECTION-?NDER SONAR DEVICES CATHODIC PROTECTION 19 PREPARING EQUIPMENT SPECI?CATIONS THE PURPOSE OF SPECI?CATIONS A TYPICAL FORMAT FOR A SPECI?CATION SCOPE OF SUPPLY SERVICE AND ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS COMPLIANT INTERNATIONAL STANDARDS DE?NITION OF TECHNICAL AND NON-TECHNICAL TERMS PERFORMANCE OR FUNCTIONAL REQUIREMENTS DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION REQUIREMENTS INSPECTION AND TESTING SPARE PARTS 19210 DOCUMENTATION 19211 APPENDICES 20 SUMMARY OF THE GENERALISED THEORY OF ELECTRICAL MACHINES AS APPLIED TO SYNCHRONOUS GENERATORS AND INDUCTION MOTORS SYNCHRONOUS GENERATOR BASIC MATHEMATICAL TRANSFORMATIONS SOME NOTES ON INDUCTION MOTORS DERIVED REACTANCES APPLICATION OF THREE-PHASE SHORT CIRCUIT DERIVED REACTANCES AND TIME CONSTANTS FOR AN INDUCTION MOTOR DERIVATION OF AN EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT ‘RE-ITERATION OR RECAPITULATION’ CONTRIBUTION OF THREE-PHASE SHORT-CIRCUIT CURRENT FROM INDUCTION MOTOR