NUCLEAR REACTOR ENGINEERING: PRINCIPLES AND CONCEPTS
DETAILED CONTENTS 1 MOTIVATION FOR NUCLEAR ENERGY 1 – 1 0 INTRODUCTION 1 1 THE ROLE OF ELECTRICITY 1 2 DISPARITIES AMONG COUNTRIES 1 3 SOURCES OF ENERGY 1 4 PRESENT SOURCES OF ELECTRICITY 1 5 PROBLEMS WITH FOSSIL FUELS 1 6 RESOURCE ESTIMATES (TABLE 1 3) 1 7 GLOBAL CLIMATE CHANGE 1 7 1 PRODUCTION OF CARBON DIOXIDE 1 7 2 THE EFFECTS OF GREENHOUSE GASES 1 8 ALTERNATIVES TO FOSSIL FUELS 1 8 1 THE POTENTIAL ROLE OF NUCLEAR ENERGY 1 9 THE EXAMPLE OF FRANCE 1 10 THE STATUS OF NUCLEAR ENERGY 1 11 INDIAS ENERGY RESOURCES 2 BASIC PHYSICS OF NUCLEAR REACTORS 13 – 2 0 INTRODUCTION 2 1 ISOTOPES 2 2 BINDING ENERGY 2 3 NUCLEAR STABILITY 2 4 NEUTRON REACTIONS 2 5 RADIOACTIVE DECAY LAW 2 6 UNITS OF RADIOACTIVITY 2 7 FISSION 2 7 1 FISSION ENERGY 2 7 2 CRITICAL MASS 2 7 3 GABON- THE NATURAL REACTOR 2 7 4 LIQUID DROP MODEL OF FISSION 2 8 CROSS SECTION 2 9 PROMPT AND DELAYED NEUTRONS 2 10 NEUTRON LIFE CYCLE (FIG 2 6) 2 11 INFINITE MULTIPLICATION FACTOR (K?) 2 11 1 FOUR FACTOR FORMULA 2 11 1 1 FAST FISSION FACTOR (E) 2 11 1 2 RESONANCE ESCAPE PROBABILITY (P) 2 11 1 3 THERMAL UTILIZATION FACTOR (F) 2 11 1 4 REPRODUCTION FACTOR (H) 2 12 EFFECTIVE MULTIPLICATION FACTOR (KEFF) 2 12 1 FAST NEUTRON NON-LEAKAGE PROBABILITY (LF) 2 12 2 THERMAL NEUTRON NON-LEAKAGE PROBABILITY (LT) 2 12 3 SIX FACTOR FORMULA 2 13 NEUTRON MODERATION 2 14 NEUTRON SLOWING DOWN 2 15 NEUTRON MODERATORS 2 16 CRITICALITY AND REACTOR POWER 2 17 BURNERS, CONVERTERS, AND BREEDERS 2 18 DECAY HEAT 2 19 REACTIVITY 2 19 1 FEEDBACK REACTIVITY 2 19 1 1 MODERATOR TEMPERATURE COEFFICIENT 2 19 1 2 FUEL TEMPERATURE COEFFICIENT 2 19 1 3 PRESSURE COEFFICIENT 2 19 1 4 VOID COEFFICIENT 2 19 1 5 NEUTRON POISON 2 20 REACTOR KINETICS 2 20 1 EFFECTIVE DELAYED NEUTRON FRACTION 2 21 REACTOR CONTROL 2 22 BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF RADIATION AND SHIELDING 3 BASICS OF POWER PLANT 39 – 3 0 INTRODUCTION 3 1 CARNOT CYCLE 3 2 RANKINE CYCLE 3 3 REHEAT CYCLE 3 4 REGENERATIVE CYCLE (FEED WATER HEATING) 3 5 REHEAT-REGENERATIVE CYCLE 3 6 BRAYTON CYCLE 4 REACTOR FUEL CYCLE 49 – INTRODUCTION MATERIAL BALANCE IN THE NUCLEAR FUEL CYCLE URANIUM MINING URANIUM MILLING CONVERSION TO URANIUM HEXAFLUORIDE ENRICHMENT 4 5 1 GASEOUS DIFFUSION 4 5 2 GAS CENTRIFUGE FUEL FABRICATION FUEL IN POWER GENERATION TRANSPORT OF RADIOACTIVE MATERIALS SPENT FUEL STORAGE REPROCESSING 4 10 1 SOLVENT EXTRACTION 4 10 1 1 PUREX 4 10 1 2 UREX 4 10 1 3 TRUEX 4 10 1 4 DIAMEX 4 10 2 PYROPROCESSING 4 10 2 1 ELECTROLYSIS 4 11 WASTE MANAGEMENT 4 11 1 TYPES OF RADIOACTIVE WASTES 4 11 1 1 EXEMPT WASTE AND VERY LOW LEVEL WASTE 4 11 1 2 LOW-LEVEL WASTE 4 11 1 3 INTERMEDIATE-LEVEL WASTE 4 11 1 4 HIGH-LEVEL WASTE 4 11 2 TREATMENT AND CONDITIONING OF NUCLEAR WASTES 4 11 2 1 INCINERATION 4 11 2 2 COMPACTION 4 11 2 3 CEMENTATION 4 11 2 4 VITRIFICATION 4 12 WASTE DISPOSAL METHODS 4 12 1 NEAR-SURFACE DISPOSAL 4 12 2 DEEP GEOLOGICAL DISPOSAL 4 12 3 DISPOSAL IN OUTER SPACE 4 12 4 DEEP BOREHOLES 4 12 5 DISPOSAL AT SEA 5 COMPONENTS OF A NUCLEAR REACTOR 68 – 5 0 INTRODUCTION 5 1 FERMI PILE 5 1 1 CONTROL 5 1 2 SAFETY 5 1 3 RADIATION MONITORING REACTOR CORE COOLANT CONTROL RODS MODERATOR OTHER CORE COMPONENTS CONTAINMENT (FIG 5 4) CORE CATCHER STEAM GENERATOR 5 10 TURBINE GENERATOR 5 11 STEAM/WATER SYSTEM 5 12 FUEL HANDLING 5 13 SPENT FUEL COOLING 5 14 EMERGENCY CORE COOLING 5 15 TYPES OF NUCLEAR REACTORS 5 15 1 PRESSURISED WATER REACTOR(PWR) 5 15 2 BOILING WATER REACTOR (BWR) 5 15 3 CANADA DEUTERIUM-URANIUM REACTORS (CANDU) 5 15 4 SODIUM COOLED FAST REACTOR(SFR) 5 15 5 ADVANCED GAS COOLED REACTORS (AGR) 6 REACTOR THERMAL HYDRAULICS 77 – 6 1 REACTOR HEAT GENERATION 6 1 1 FISSION ENERGY IN REACTOR 6 1 2 HEAT GENERATION AFTER SHUTDOWN 6 1 3 HEAT GENERATION IN THE MODERATOR 6 1 4 HEAT GENERATION IN REFLECTORS AND SHIELDS 6 1 5 HEAT GENERATION IN STRUCTURES 6 2 HEAT TRANSPORT IN THE FUEL ELEMENT 6 2 1 GENERAL HEAT CONDUCTION EQUATION 6 2 2 INITIAL AND BOUNDARY CONDITIONS 6 2 2 1 BOUNDARY CONDITIONS (BC) 6 2 2 2 INITIAL CONDITION HEAT CONDUCTION IN CYLINDRICAL FUEL ROD THERMAL PROPERTIES TEMPERATURE DISTRIBUTION IN RESTRUCTURED FUEL 6 5 1 HEAT CONDUCTION IN HOLLOW FUEL ROD (ANNULAR FUEL) GAP CONDUCTANCE HEAT TRANSPORT TO THE COOLANT—SINGLE PHASE 6 7 1 FLUID FLOW CHARACTERISTICS OF COOLANT 6 7 2 HEAT TRANSFER TO COOLANT HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENTS IN FREE CONVECTION HEAT TRANSFER IN BOILING PRESSURE DROP IN REACTOR SYSTEM TWO PHASE PRESSURE DROP 6 11 1 FLOW INSTABILITY 6 11 1 1 STATIC INSTABILITIES (FIG 6 18) 6 11 1 2 DYNAMIC INSTABILITY 6 12 CHOKED FLOW 6 13 CONDENSATION HEAT TRANSFER 6 14 PRESSURE DROP IN ROD BUNDLES 7 PRESSURIZED WATER REACTORS 104 – 7 0 INTRODUCTION 7 1 REACTOR CONFIGURATIONS 7 1 1 OVERALL SYSTEM (FIG 7 1) 7 1 2 COOLANT 7 1 3 MODERATOR 7 1 4 CORE CONFIGURATION 7 1 5 REACTOR VESSEL 7 2 REACTOR CONTROL 7 3 STEAM GENERATION 7 4 OTHER PRIMARY SYSTEM COMPONENTS 7 4 1 PRIMARY COOLANT PUMPS 7 4 2 PRESSURIZER 7 5 AUXILIARY SYSTEMS 7 6 STEAM TURBINE CYCLE 7 7 CHEMICAL VOLUME CONTROL SYSTEM (FIG 7 13) 7 8 RESIDUAL (SHUTDOWN) HEAT REMOVAL CIRCUIT 7 9 EMERGENCY CORE COOLING CIRCUIT 7 10 CONTAINMENT SYSTEMS (FIG 7 17) 7 10 1 CONTAINMENT SPRAY SYSTEM 7 10 2 HYDROGEN CONTROL IN CONTAINMENT 7 11 ADVANTAGES OVER BWR 7 12 PWR TYPICAL ISSUES 8 BOILING WATER REACTOR 124 – 8 0 INTRODUCTION 8 1 BWR REACTOR VESSEL ASSEMBLY 8 2 FUEL AND CONTROL ASSEMBLIES 8 3 REACTOR WATER CLEANUP SYSTEM (FIG 8 5) 8 4 SHUTDOWN/DECAY HEAT REMOVAL (FIG 8 6) 8 5 REACTOR CORE ISOLATION COOLING (FIG 8 7) 8 6 STANDBY LIQUID CONTROL SYSTEM (FIG 8 8) 8 7 EMERGENCY CORE COOLING SYSTEMS (FIG 8 9) 8 8 BOILING WATER REACTOR CONTAINMENTS 9 PRESSURISED HEAVY WATER REACTOR 134 – 9 0 INTRODUCTION 9 1 GENESIS OF CANDU HWR 9 2 REACTOR 9 3 MODERATOR SYSTEMS 9 4 HEAT TRANSPORT SYSTEMS 9 5 FEED AND BLEED CIRCUIT 9 6 FUEL 9 7 FUEL HANDLING 9 8 REACTOR POWER CONTROL 9 9 REACTOR SAFETY 9 9 1 SHUTDOWN SYSTEMS (FIG 9 7) 9 9 2 SHUTDOWN COOLING SYSTEM 9 9 2 1 EMERGENCY CORE COOLING SYSTEM(FIG 9 8) 9 10 CONTAINMENT SYSTEM (FIG 9 9) 9 11 MAIN STEAM AND FEEDWATER SYSTEMS 9 11 1 STEAM GENERATOR PRESSURE CONTROL 9 11 2 STEAM GENERATOR LEVEL CONTROL 10 GAS COOLED REACTOR 147 – 10 0 INTRODUCTION 10 1 MAGNOX-GENERAL DESCRIPTION 10 2 MAGNOX REACTORS IN OTHER COUNTRIES 10 3 UNGG REACTORS 10 4 ADVANCED GAS COOLED REACTOR (AGR) 11 LIQUID METAL FAST REACTORS 153 – 11 0 INTRODUCTION 11 1 FLEXIBLE USE OF ACTINIDES 11 2 WASTE MINIMIZATION 11 3 OVERVIEW OF SODIUM COOLED FAST REACTOR (SFR) 11 4 LAYOUT OF SFR COMPONENTS 11 4 1 POOL CONCEPT 11 4 2 LOOP CONCEPT 11 5 FUEL DESIGN 11 5 1 FUEL ELEMENT 11 5 2 FUEL SUBASSEMBLY 11 5 2 1 FUEL HANDLING 11 6 INTERMEDIATE CIRCUITS 11 6 1 INTERMEDIATE HEAT EXCHANGER (IHX) (FIG 11 9) 11 6 2 STEAM GENERATORS 11 7 SODIUM PUMPS 11 7 1 ELECTROMAGNETIC PUMP 11 7 2 CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS (FIG 11 14) 11 8 AUXILIARY CIRCUITS 11 8 1 INERT GAS SYSTEM 11 8 2 TRACE HEATING 11 8 3 SODIUM PURIFICATION SYSTEM 12 MOLTEN-SALT REACTORS 173 – 12 0 INTRODUCTION 12 1 ORNL DEVELOPMENTAL WORK 12 2 MOLTEN SALT REACTOR EXPERIMENT (MSRE) 12 3 PROBLEMS OF MSR 12 4 IMPACT OF LMFBR PROGRAMME ON MSR 13 INDIA’S NUCLEAR POWER PROGRAMME 178 – 13 0 INTRODUCTION 13 1 SETTING UP OF NUCLEAR ESTABLISHMENT 13 2 RESEARCH REACTOR APSARA 13 3 CANADA INDIA RESEARCH REACTOR (CIRUS) 13 4 SPENT FUEL REPROCESSING 13 5 INDIA’S NUCLEAR FACILITIES 13 5 1 POWER REACTORS 13 5 2 RESEARCH REACTORS 13 5 3 URANIUM ENRICHMENT FACILITIES 13 5 4 HEAVY WATER PRODUCTION 13 5 5 FUEL FABRICATION 13 5 6 REPROCESSING FACILITIES 13 5 7 URANIUM MINING, MILLING 13 6 FUTURE INDIAN STAGE 3 PROGRAMME 13 6 1 ADVANCED HEAVY WATER REACTOR (AHWR) 13 6 2 ACCELERATOR DRIVEN SUBCRITICAL SYSTEMS (ADS) 13 6 3 COMPACT HIGH TEMPERATURE REACTOR (CHTR) 14 NEXT GENERATION OF REACTORS 191 – 14 0 INTRODUCTION 14 1 GENERATION I 14 2 GENERATION II 14 3 GENERATION III 14 3 1 ABWR 14 4 GENERATION III+ 14 4 1 EPR 14 5 GENERATION IV CONCEPTS 14 5 1 GAS-COOLED FAST REACTOR (GFR) 14 5 2 LEAD-COOLED FAST REACTOR (LFR) 14 5 3 MOLTEN SALT REACTOR (MSR) 14 5 4 SODIUM-COOLED FAST REACTOR (SFR) 14 5 5 SUPERCRITICAL WATER-COOLED REACTOR (SCWR) 14 5 6 VERY HIGH TEMPERATURE REACTOR (VHTR) 14 6 ACTINIDE MANAGEMENT 14 7 KICK-STARTING THE HYDROGEN ECONOMY 15 SAFETY APPROACHES IN REACTOR DESIGN 204 – 15 0 INTRODUCTION 15 1 COMPREHENSIVE SAFETY ANALYSIS 15 1 1 DEFENCE IN DEPTH 15 1 2 THE FUNDAMENTAL SAFETY FUNCTIONS 15 3 CURRENT SAFETY APPROACH 15 3 1 ACHIEVING DESIGN SAFETY IN PRACTICE 15 3 1 1 FACILITIES TO CONTROL & SHUTDOWN REACTOR (FIG 15 2) 15 3 1 2 FACILITIES TO COOL THE REACTOR 15 3 2 CONTAINMENT (FIG 15 3) 15 3 3 FACILITIES TO SUPPORT SAFETY FACILITIES 15 3 3 1 REDUNDANCY DIVERSITY AND INDEPENDENCE 15 4 DESIGN BASIS EVENTS (DBE) 15 4 1 EVENT CLASSES 15 4 1 1 CLASS I-NORMAL OPERATION AND OPERATIONAL TRANSIENTS 15 4 1 2 CLASS II EVENTS OF MODERATE FREQUENCY 15 4 1 3 CLASS III EVENTS OF LOW FREQUENCY 15 4 1 4 CLASS IV MULTIPLE FAILURES AND RARE EVENTS 15 4 2 BEYOND DESIGN BASIS EVENTS 15 5 PROBABILISTIC SAFETY ANALYSIS 15 6 REGULATORY PROCESS IN INDIA 15 6 1 SITE APPROVAL 15 6 2 CONSTRUCTION APPROVAL 15 6 3 OPERATING LICENSE 15 6 4 REGULATORY INSPECTION 15 7 RADIATION DOSE LIMITS 15 8 RADIATION EXPOSURE 16 DIRECT ENERGY CONVERSION 218 – 16 0 INTRODUCTION 16 1 THERMOELECTRIC GENERATORS 16 1 1 RADIONUCLIDE THERMOELECTRIC GENERATORS 16 1 2 REACTOR THERMOELECTRIC GENERATORS 16 2 THERMIONIC ELECTRICAL GENERATORS 16 2 1 RADIONUCLIDE THERMIONIC GENERATORS 16 3 AMTEC CONVERSION 16 4 BETAVOLTAIC BATTERIES 16 5 RADIOISOTOPES FOR THERMAL POWER SOURCES 17 FUSION 228 – 17 0 INTRODUCTION 17 1 BINDING ENERGY 17 2 FUSION REACTIONS 17 3 FUSION FUEL AVAILABILITY 17 4 ISSUES IN FUSION 17 5 THERMONUCLEAR REACTION IN PLASMA 17 5 1 INERTIAL CONFINEMENT FUSION (ICF) 17 5 2 MAGNETIC CONFINEMENT 17 6 LAWSON’S CRITERIA 17 7 FUSION POWER PLANTS 17 8 SAFETY AND ENVIRONMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS 17 9 THE “COLD FUSION” CONFUSION 17 10 FUSION RESEARCH IN INDIA 17 11 ADVANTAGES OF FUSION ENERGY