THE STEAM ENGINE INDICATOR
CONTENTS CHAPTER 1 ENERGY CONVERSION: THERMODYNAMIC BASICS 1 1 INTRODUCTION 1 2 PRINCIPLES OF THERMODYNAMICS 1 2 1 NOTION OF A THERMODYNAMIC SYSTEM 1 2 2 FIRST LAW 1 2 3 SECOND LAW: MECHANISM OF MECHANICAL ENERGY DEGRADATION IN A HEAT ENGINE 1 3 THERMODYNAMICS OF GASES 1 3 1 EQUATIONS OF STATE 1 3 2 CALORIMETRIC COEF?CIENTS 1 3 3 IDEAL GAS 1 3 4 VAN DER WAALS GAS 1 4 CONCLUSION 1 5 REFERENCES CHAPTER 2 INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES 2 1 GENERALITIES – OPERATING PRINCIPLES 2 1 1 INTRODUCTION 2 1 2 SPARK-IGNITION ENGINES 2 1 3 COMPRESSION IGNITION ENGINE 2 1 4 EXPRESSION OF USEFUL WORK 2 2 THEORETICAL AIR CYCLES 2 2 1 HYPOTHESES 2 2 2 BEAU DE ROCHAS CYCLE (OTTO CYCLE) 2 2 3 MILLER–ATKINSON CYCLE 2 2 4 DIESEL CYCLE 2 2 5 THE LIMITED PRESSURE CYCLE (MIXED CYCLE) 2 2 6 COMPARISON OF THEORETICAL AIR CYCLES 2 3 IN?UENCES OF THE THERMOPHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF THE WORKING ?UID ON THE THEORETICAL CYCLES 2 3 1 THERMOPHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF THE WORKING ?UID 2 3 2 REVERSIBLE ADIABATIC TRANSFORMATIONS 2 3 3 MIXED CYCLE FOR IDEAL AND SEMI-IDEAL GASES 2 4 ZERO-DIMENSIONAL THERMODYNAMIC MODELS 2 4 1 HYPOTHESES 2 4 2 SINGLE-ZONE MODEL 2 4 3 FLOW THROUGH THE VALVES 2 4 4 HEAT TRANSFER WITH THE CYLINDER WALLS 2 4 5 COMBUSTION HEAT GENERATION MODEL 2 4 6 TWO-ZONE MODEL 2 5 SUPERCHARGING OF INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES 2 5 1 BASIC PRINCIPLES OF SUPERCHARGING 2 5 2 SUPERCHARGING BY A DRIVEN COMPRESSOR 2 5 3 TURBOCHARGING 2 6 CONCLUSIONS AND PERSPECTIVES 2 7 REFERENCES CHAPTER 3 AERONAUTICAL AND SPACE PROPULSION 3 1 HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT OF AERONAUTICAL MEANS OF PROPULSION 3 2 PRESENTATION OF THE AIRCRAFT SYSTEM AND ITS PROPULSIVE UNIT 3 2 1 CLASSI?CATION AND PRESENTATION OF THE USUAL ARCHITECTURES OF AERONAUTICAL ENGINES AND THEIR SPECI?C USES 3 2 2 STUDY OF THE FORCES APPLIED ON THE AIRCRAFT SYSTEM DURING STEADY ?IGHT 3 2 3 DE?NITION OF THE PROPULSION FORCES AND SPECI?C QUANTITIES OF THE PROPULSION SYSTEM 3 3 OPERATING CYCLE ANALYSIS 3 3 1 HYPOTHESES AND LIMITS OF VALIDITY 3 3 2 PRESENTATION OF ENGINE STATIONS (SAE ARP 755 STANDARD) 3 3 3 STUDY OF THERMODYNAMIC TRANSFORMATIONS AND THEIR REPRESENTATIONS IN T – S DIAGRAMS 3 3 4 STUDY OF THE THERMODYNAMIC CYCLES FOR A GAS TURBINE 3 3 5 STUDY OF THE THERMODYNAMIC CYCLE OF A GAS TURBINE, BRANCH BY BRANCH 3 3 6 IMPROVEMENTS TO THE JOULE–BRAYTON CYCLE 3 3 7 THERMODYNAMIC IMPROVEMENTS FOR A GAS TURBINE USING ENERGY REGENERATION 3 3 8 THERMODYNAMIC IMPROVEMENTS FOR A GAS TURBINE USING STAGED COMPRESSION AND EXPANSION 3 4 THE ACTUAL ENGINE 3 4 1 DEVELOPMENT CYCLE OF THE TURBOMACHINE (TURBOJET) 3 4 2 TECHNICAL DISCIPLINES IN DEVELOPMENT 3 4 3 SOME SPECI?C PROBLEMS OF EACH MODULE 3 4 4 SECONDARY AIR SYSTEM DESIGN METHODS 3 4 5 T4 AND THE SECONDARY AIR SYSTEM 3 5 PERSPECTIVES 3 6 REFERENCES CHAPTER 4 COMBUSTION AND CONVERSION OF ENERGY 4 1 GENERALITIES 4 1 1 INTRODUCTION 4 1 2 PREMIXED ?AME 4 1 3 DIFFUSION ?AME 4 1 4 STABILIZATION OF A ?AME 4 1 5 FLAMMABILITY OF AIR–FUEL MIXTURES 4 1 6 COMBUSTION IN INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES 4 2 THEORETICAL COMBUSTION REACTIONS 4 2 1 CONSTITUENTS OF THE COMBUSTIBLE MIXTURE 4 2 2 COMBUSTION STOICHIOMETRY 4 2 3 THEORETICAL COMBUSTION OF A LEAN MIXTURE 4 2 4 THEORETICAL COMBUSTION OF A RICH MIXTURE 4 3 ENERGY STUDY OF COMBUSTION 4 3 1 COMBUSTION AT CONSTANT VOLUME 4 3 2 COMBUSTION AT CONSTANT PRESSURE 4 3 3 RELATIONS BETWEEN HEATING VALUES 4 3 4 ADIABATIC ?AME AND EXPLOSION TEMPERATURES 4 4 CHEMICAL KINETICS OF COMBUSTION 4 4 1 CHAIN REACTIONS 4 4 2 COMPOSITION OF A REACTIVE MIXTURE 4 4 3 REACTION RATES 4 4 4 ESTABLISHING A CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM 4 4 5 EQUILIBRIUM COMPOSITION OF THE COMBUSTION PRODUCTS 4 4 6 DETAILED CHEMICAL KINETICS–FORMATION OF POLLUTANTS 4 5 EXERGY ANALYSIS OF COMBUSTION 4 5 1 EXERGY OF A GAS MIXTURE 4 5 2 EXERGY PRODUCTION FROM A COMBUSTION REACTION 4 5 3 EXERGY OF A FUEL 4 6 CONCLUSION 4 7 REFERENCES CHAPTER 5 ENGINES WITH AN EXTERNAL HEAT SUPPLY 5 1 INTRODUCTION 5 2 THE STIRLING ENGINE 5 2 1 THEORETICAL CYCLE 5 2 2 CHARACTERISTICS OF THE STIRLING ENGINE 5 3 THE ERICSSON ENGINE 5 3 1 OPERATING PRINCIPLES 5 3 2 THEORETICAL CYCLES 5 3 3 IMPROVEMENTS OF THE ERICSSON ENGINE 5 4 PERSPECTIVES 5 4 1 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF STIRLING AND ERICSSON ENGINES 5 4 2 PERSPECTIVES OF EVOLUTION OF EXTERNAL COMBUSTION MACHINES IN THE NEW DECARBONIZED ENERGY LANDSCAPE 5 5 REFERENCES CHAPTER 6 ENERGY RECOVERY – WASTE HEAT RECOVERY 6 1 WASTE ENERGY RECOVERY 6 1 1 ENERGY BALANCE OF AN INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE 6 1 2 DEGRADATION OF MECHANIZABLE ENERGY INTO UNCOMPENSATED HEAT 6 1 3 EXERGY BALANCE IN INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES 6 1 4 CONCEPT OF ENERGY RECOVERY 6 2 COGENERATION IN INDUSTRIAL FACILITIES 6 2 1 COGENERATING GAS TURBINES 6 2 2 COGENERATING DIESEL ENGINE 6 2 3 COMPARATIVE COGENERATION EF?CIENCIES 6 2 4 COMPLEX DEPRESSURIZED CYCLE 6 2 5 COMPLEX OVER-EXPANSION CYCLE 6 2 6 CONCLUSION 6 3 MICRO-COGENERATION 6 3 1 INTRODUCTION 6 3 2 CLASSI?CATION 6 3 3 INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES 6 3 4 GAS MICRO-TURBINES 6 3 5 FUEL CELLS 6 3 6 THERMOELECTRICITY 6 3 7 THERMOACOUSTICS 6 3 8 “RANKINIZED” CYCLES 6 4 CONCLUSION 6 5 PERSPECTIVES 6 6 REFERENCES