INDUSTRIAL AND PROCESS FURNACES
CONTENTS CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1 1 WHAT IS A FURNACE? 1 1 1 FURNACE OUTLINE 1 1 2 FURNACE CLASSIFICATION 1 1 3 PRINCIPLE OBJECTIVES OF FURNACE DESIGNERS AND OPERATORS 1 2 WHERE ARE FURNACES USED? BRIEF REVIEW OF CURRENT FURNACE APPLICATIONS AND TECHNOLOGY CERAMICS, BRICK MAKING AND POTTERY CEMENT AND LIME GLASS MAKING METAL ORE SMELTING METAL REFINING FLASH AND FLUID BED FURNACES METAL PHYSICAL PROCESSING INCINERATORS AND RESOURCE RECOVERY FURNACES FURNACES WITH REDUCING ATMOSPHERES 1 2 10 OIL REFINING AND PETROCHEMICAL FURNACES 1 3 DRIVERS FOR IMPROVED EFFICIENCY 1 4 CONCLUDING REMARKS REFERENCES CHAPTER 2 THE COMBUSTION PROCESS 2 1 SIMPLE COMBUSTION CHEMISTRY 2 1 1 THE COMPLETE OXIDATION OF CARBON 2 1 2 THE COMPLETE OXIDATION OF HYDROGEN 2 1 3 THE INCOMPLETE OXIDATION OF CARBON 2 1 4 THE OXIDATION OF CARBON MONOXIDE 2 2 COMBUSTION CALCULATIONS 2 3 CHEMICAL REACTION KINETICS 2 3 1 TYPES OF REACTIONS 2 3 2 REACTION RATE THEORY 2 3 3 REACTION RATE BEHAVIOUR 2 3 4 BURNING DROPLETS AND PARTICLES 2 4 THE PHYSICS OF COMBUSTION 2 4 1 THE ROLE OF PRIMARY AIR 2 4 2 THE ROLE OF SWIRL FLOWS 2 4 3 TURBULENCE IN JETS 2 4 4 SECONDARY FLOW AERODYNAMICS 2 4 5 EFFECT OF EXCESS AIR ON FUEL CONSUMPTION 2 4 6 MULTIPLE BURNER INSTALLATIONS NOMENCLATURE CHAPTER 3 FUELS FOR FURNACES 3 1 GASEOUS FUELS 3 1 1 PROPERTIES OF NATURAL GAS 3 1 2 MANUFACTURED GAS 3 1 3 WOBBE NUMBER OR INDEX 3 1 4 FLAMMABILITY LIMITS CALCULATION OF THE FLAMMABLE LIMITS FOR MIXTURES OF GASES INFLUENCE OF TEMPERATURE AND PRESSURE ON THE LIMITS 3 1 5 FLAME RADIATION FROM GASEOUS FUELS 3 2 LIQUID FUELS 3 3 SOLID FUELS 3 3 1 ASH 3 4 WASTE FUELS 3 5 CHOICE OF FUEL 3 5 1 FURNACE PERFORMANCE HEAT TRANSFER FURNACE ATMOSPHERE FLEXIBILITY OF OPERATION EFFECT OF ASH REFRACTORY LIFE FUEL COST AND SECURITY OF SUPPLY FUEL HANDLING SYSTEM CAPITAL AND RUNNING COSTS 3 6 SAFETY 3 7 EMISSIONS SOLID FUEL BIBLIOGRAPHY CHAPTER 4 AN INTRODUCTION TO HEAT TRANSFER IN FURNACES 4 1 CONDUCTION 4 1 1 STEADY STATE CONDUCTION 4 1 2 TRANSIENT CONDUCTION ANALYTICAL APPROACH NUMERICAL APPROACH 4 2 CONVECTION 4 2 1 DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS 4 2 2 APPLICATION TO CONVECTIVE HEAT TRANSFER 4 2 3 EVALUATING CONVECTIVE HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENTS 4 2 4 HIGH TEMPERATURE CONVECTIVE HEAT TRANSFER 4 3 RADIATION 4 3 1 PHYSICAL BASICS OF RADIATIVE EXCHANGE 4 3 2 EMISSIVITY AND ABSORPTIVITY 4 3 3 VIEW FACTORS EQUIVALENT GREY SURFACE 4 3 4 MEAN BEAM LENGTH 4 4 ELECTRICAL HEATING 4 4 1 RESISTANCE HEATING DIRECT RESISTANCE HEATING INDIRECT RESISTANCE HEATING 4 4 2 ARC HEATING ELECTRODE DEVICES ELECTRODELESS DEVICES 4 4 3 INDUCTION HEATING 4 4 4 DIELECTRIC HEATING 4 4 5 INFRARED HEATING APPENDIX 4A TABLES OF EMISSIVITY DATA CHAPTER 5 FLAMES AND BURNERS FOR FURNACES 5 1 TYPES OF FLAME 5 1 1 PREMIXED FLAMES 5 1 2 TURBULENT JET DIFFUSION FLAMES 5 1 3 HETEROGENEOUS COMBUSTION ATOMISATION OF LIQUID FUELS AND PULVERISATION OF COAL THE IMPORTANCE OF DROP AND PARTICLE SIZE 5 2 FUNCTION OF A BURNER AND BASICS OF BURNER DESIGN 5 2 1 THE ESSENTIAL IMPORTANCE OF HEAT FLUX PROFILES 5 2 2 FLAME STABILISATION 5 3 GAS BURNERS 5 3 1 PREMIXED BURNERS EFFECT OF EXCESS AIR (MIXTURE RATIO) ON FLAME TEMPERATURE RADIANT WALL BURNERS USE OF PREMIX BURNERS IN LOW NOX APPLICATIONS SAFETY ISSUES WITH PREMIX BURNERS SIZE LIMITATIONS 5 3 2 TURBULENT JET DIFFUSION BURNERS 5 3 3 PRECESSING JET DIFFUSION BURNERS 5 4 OIL BURNERS 5 4 1 TURNDOWN 5 4 2 ATOMISERS PRESSURE JET ATOMISERS TWIN FLUID ATOMISERS 5 5 PULVERISED COAL BURNERS 5 6 FURNACE AERODYNAMICS BURNER AND FURNACE AIR FLOW PATTERNS 5 6 1 SINGLE BURNER SYSTEMS PACKAGE BURNER INSTALLATIONS ROTARY KILNS AND DRIERS, ETC 5 6 2 MULTIPLE BURNER SYSTEMS 5 6 3 COMBUSTION AIR DUCT DESIGN 5 6 4 COMMON WINDBOX AND PLENUM DESIGN 5 7 COMBUSTION SYSTEM SCALING 5 7 1 EXAMPLE OF COMBUSTION SYSTEM SCALING 5 8 FURNACE NOISE 5 8 1 COMBUSTION ROAR 5 8 2 NOZZLE AND TURBULENT JET NOISE 5 8 3 FAN NOISE 5 8 4 PIPE AND VALVE NOISE 5 8 5 FURNACE NOISE ATTENUATION 5 8 6 COMBUSTION DRIVEN OSCILLATIONS CHAPTER 6 COMBUSTION AND HEAT TRANSFER MODELLING 6 1 PHYSICAL MODELLING 6 1 1 THRING-NEWBY PARAMETER 6 1 2 CRAYA-CURTET PARAMETER 6 1 3 BECKER THROTTLE FACTOR 6 1 4 CURTET NUMBER 6 1 5 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SCALING PARAMETERS 6 1 6 DETERMINING THE REQUIRED MODEL FLOWS 6 1 7 APPLYING THE SCALING PARAMETER 6 1 8 APPLYING A POST-MEASUREMENT CORRECTION 6 2 MATHEMATICAL MODELLING 6 2 1 SIMPLE WELL-STIRRED FURNACE MODELS 6 2 2 LONG FURNACE MODELS 6 2 3 TWO- AND THREE-DIMENSIONAL ZONE MODELS 6 2 4 COMPUTATIONAL FLUID DYNAMICS MODELS GRIDDING OF CFD MODELS CONVERGENCE OF CFD MODELS 6 2 5 PARTICLE DRAG IN COMBUSTION SYSTEMS 6 3 APPLICATION OF MODELLING TO FURNACE DESIGN CHAPTER 7 FUEL HANDLING SYSTEMS 7 1 GAS VALVE TRAINS 7 1 1 SAFETY SHUTOFF SYSTEMS DOUBLE BLOCK AND BLEED LEAK TESTING AND PROVING 7 2 FUEL OIL HANDLING SYSTEMS 7 2 1 STORAGE, PUMPING AND HEATING 7 2 2 OIL VALVE TRAINS 7 3 PULVERISED COAL HANDLING AND FIRING SYSTEMS RAW COAL BUNKERS AND FEEDERS COAL GRINDING AND DRYING COAL DRYING CHARACTERISTICS COAL MILLS BALL MILLS VERTICAL SPINDLE MILLS HIGH SPEED MILLS COAL MILL GRINDING CAPACITY COAL FINENESS COAL DRYNESS PULVERISED COAL GRINDING AND FIRING SYSTEMS DIRECT AND INDIRECT FIRING SYSTEMS DIRECT FIRING SEMI-DIRECT FIRING INDIRECT FIRING SEMI-INDIRECT FIRING COAL SYSTEM DRYING CAPACITY COAL FIRING SYSTEM FANS FINE COAL STORAGE FINE COAL FEEDING AND CONVEYING VOLUMETRIC FEEDERS MASS FLOW FEEDERS PULVERISED COAL CONVEYING 7 4 WASTE FUEL HANDLING 7 4 1 WASTE GAS FUEL HANDLING 7 4 2 WASTE LIQUID FUEL HANDLING 7 4 3 SOLIDS WASTE FUEL HANDLING SIZE DISTRIBUTION 7 4 4 ENVIRONMENTAL BENEFITS AND HEALTH HAZARDS OF WASTE FUEL UTILISATION APPLICABLE CODES AND STANDARDS CHAPTER 8 FURNACE CONTROL AND SAFETY 8 1 PROCESS CONTROL 8 1 1 BASIC FURNACE CONTROL STRATEGIES CONTROL OF PRODUCT TEMPERATURE FUZZY LOGIC AND RULE-BASED SYSTEMS 8 2 FURNACE INSTRUMENTATION 8 2 1 TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT 8 2 2 HEAT INPUT MEASUREMENT FLOW MEASUREMENT OF LIQUID AND GASEOUS FUELS CALORIFIC VALUE MEASUREMENT SOLID FUELS 8 2 3 DETERMINATION OF EXCESS AIR 8 3 FLUE GAS ANALYSIS 8 3 1 EXTRACTIVE GAS SAMPLING SYSTEMS AND ANALYSERS SAMPLE PROBE INSTALLATION COLD GAS EXTRACTIVE SYSTEMS HOT WET GAS EXTRACTIVE SYSTEMS DILUTION EXTRACTIVE SYSTEMS 8 3 2 IN-SITU SYSTEMS DUST MONITORS OXYGEN ANALYSERS CROSS-DUCT ANALYSERS 8 4 COMBUSTION CONTROL 8 5 ENSURING FURNACE SAFETY 8 5 1 RISK FACTORS IN FURNACE OPERATION 8 5 2 FURNACE START-UP CRITICAL TIME FOR IGNITION DURING FURNACE START-UP 8 5 3 OPERATION WITH INSUFFICIENT COMBUSTION AIR CORRECTIVE ACTION FOR UNINTENTIONAL SUB-STOICHIOMETRIC OPERATION 8 5 4 FLAME QUENCHING 8 5 5 ELIMINATING IGNITION SOURCES 8 6 BURNER MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS 8 6 1 SAFETY REQUIREMENTS FOR BURNER MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS 8 6 2 FALSE TRIPS 8 6 3 ACHIEVING ACCEPTABLE SAFETY STANDARDS WITH PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC CONTROLLER BURNER MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS 8 6 4 CHOOSING AN APPROPRIATE SAFETY INTEGRITY LEVEL 8 6 5 DETERMINING THE SAFETY INTEGRITY LEVEL OF THE BMS SYSTEM 8 6 6 FLAME DETECTORS CERTIFICATION AND TESTING ORGANISATIONS CHAPTER 9 FURNACE EFFICIENCY 9 1 FURNACE PERFORMANCE CHARTS 9 2 MASS AND ENERGY BALANCES 9 2 1 ON-SITE MEASUREMENT FLUE GAS SAMPLING AND ANALYSIS CALIBRATION AND ERRORS IN PLANT INSTRUMENTATION 9 2 2 CONSTRUCTING MASS AND ENERGY BALANCES 9 3 ENERGY CONVERSION 9 3 1 LOW AND HIGH GRADE HEAT 9 3 2 EXERGY AND PINCH POINT ANALYSIS 9 4 HEAT RECOVERY EQUIPMENT 9 4 1 RECUPERATIVE HEAT EXCHANGERS 9 4 2 REGENERATIVE HEAT EXCHANGERS 9 4 3 GENERAL HEAT EXCHANGER DESIGN PROCEDURE 9 5 IDENTIFYING EFFICIENCY IMPROVEMENTS CHAPTER 10 EMISSIONS AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT 10 1 FORMATION OF CARBON MONOXIDE 10 2 FORMATION OF NITROGEN OXIDES 10 2 1 THERMAL NOX FORMATION 10 2 2 FUEL NOX FORMATION 10 2 3 PROMPT NOX FORMATION 10 2 4 NOX MODELLING 10 3 FORMATION OF SULPHUR OXIDES 10 4 FORMATION OF INTERMEDIATE COMBUSTION PRODUCTS 10 4 1 VOLATILE ORGANIC COMPOUNDS (VOCS) 10 4 2 POLYCYCLIC AROMATIC HYDROCARBONS (PAH) 10 4 3 PCBS, DIOXINS AND FURANS 10 5 PARTICULATE EMISSIONS 10 5 1 FORMATION OF SOOT 10 5 2 FORMATION AND COMPOSITION OF FUEL ASH 10 5 3 NON-COMBUSTIBLE VOLATILE CYCLES 10 6 ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROL OF EMISSIONS 10 6 1 PREVENTION AND ABATEMENT OF EMISSIONS PRE-FLAME CONTROL IN-FLAME CONTROL END-OF-PIPE CONTROL 10 6 2 DISPERSION MODELLING CHAPTER 11 FURNACE CONSTRUCTION AND MATERIALS 11 1 BASIC PERFORMANCE REQUIREMENTS OF THE FURNACE STRUCTURE 11 2 BASIC CONSTRUCTION METHODS 11 2 1 BRICK LINING 11 2 2 MONOLITHIC LININGS CASTABLE REFRACTORY TRADITIONAL INSTALLATION OF CASTABLE REFRACTORY INSTALLATION OF CASTABLE REFRACTORY BY GUNNING DRYING AND CURING OF CAST AND GUNNED REFRACTORY MOULDABLE AND RAMMABLE REFRACTORIES 11 2 3 FURNACE STEELWORK 11 2 4 FURNACE ROOF CONSTRUCTION 11 2 5 FURNACE COOLING SYSTEMS 11 3 PRACTICAL ENGINEERING CONSIDERATIONS IN THE USE OF REFRACTORIES 11 4 CERAMIC REFRACTORY MATERIALS 11 4 1 TESTING OF REFRACTORIES 11 4 2 PROPERTIES AND USES OF REFRACTORIES SILICA AND SILICEOUS REFRACTORIES ALUMINA AND ALUMINOUS REFRACTORIES CHROMITE/MAGNESITE/ALUMINA REFRACTORIES DOLOMITE REFRACTORIES ZIRCON AND ZIRCONIA REFRACTORIES CARBON REFRACTORIES INSULATING REFRACTORIES 11 5 HEAT RESISTING AND REFRACTORY METALS 11 5 1 EFFECT OF ELEVATED TEMPERATURE ON METAL PROPERTIES 11 5 2 HIGH TEMPERATURE ALLOYS SERVICE TEMPERATURE INTERGRANULAR CORROSION PROPRIETARY HIGH NICKEL ALLOYS 11 6 PRACTICAL ENGINEERING CONSIDERATIONS IN THE USE OF HIGH TEMPERATURE METALS 11 7 CONCLUDING REMARKS SELECTION OF RELEVANT STANDARDS ADVISORY ORGANISATIONS APPENDIX 11A GENERAL PROPERTIES OF SELECTED REFRACTORY MATERIALS CHAPTER 12 FURNACE DESIGN METHODS 12 1 INTRODUCTION 12 1 1 DESIGN CONSTRAINTS 12 1 2 COST OF DESIGN CHANGES 12 2 CONCEPTUAL DESIGN 12 2 1 PROCESS FUNCTIONS STRAIGHT-THROUGH FURNACE SYSTEM SEPARATION FURNACE SYSTEM COMBINING FURNACE WITH DOWNSTREAM SEPARATION COMBINING AND SEPARATION FURNACE SYSTEM 12 2 2 DEFINING THE PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL CHANGES 12 2 3 PRELIMINARY MASS AND ENERGY BALANCES 12 2 4 RELIABILITY OF AVAILABLE PROCESS KNOWLEDGE EXISTING PROCESSES NEW PROCESSES AND PILOT PLANTS 12 2 5 EFFECT OF UPSTREAM AND DOWNSTREAM PROCESSES 12 2 6 FUEL CHOICE FUEL CHEMICAL COMPATIBILITY WITH THE PROCESS HEAT TRANSFER COMPATIBILITY WITH THE PROCESS 12 2 7 POTENTIAL FOR HEAT RECOVERY AND CHOICE OF EQUIPMENT ESTIMATING THE POTENTIAL FOR HEAT RECOVERY FROM HOT PRODUCT ESTIMATING THE POTENTIAL FOR HEAT RECOVERY FROM HOT FLUE GAS ESTIMATING THE POTENTIAL FOR HEAT RECOVERY FROM SHELL LOSSES OR COOLING WATER ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS 12 3 FURNACE SIZING SLAB HEATING FURNACE DESIGN OIL HEATING FURNACE DESIGN AGGREGATE PROCESSING FURNACE 12 4 BURNER SELECTION 12 5 DETAILED ANALYSIS AND VALIDATION OF THE FURNACE DESIGN 12 6 FURNACE INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROLS