A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON MODERN GAS AND OIL ENGINES
1 Introduction to Biofuels1 11 Overview of Fossil Fuels1 12 Demand and Supply of Fossil Fuels4 13 Role of Internal Combustion Engines for Mass and Passenger Transportation6 131 Intratransportation within a Country Region7 1311 Transportation by Roadway7 1312 Combined Mode of Mass Goods Transportation by Road and Railway8 132 Intertransportation: Country to Country8 1321 Combined Mode of Goods Transportation by Road and Waterways8 1322 Combined Mode of Goods Transportation by Road and Airway9 14 Applications of Internal Combustion Engines in Decentralized Power Generation Sectors9 15 Off-Road Applications 10 16 Emission Load in Urban Cities 11 17 The Need for Bioenergy/Biofuels 12 18 Potential of Biofuel Resources 12 19 Biofuels: First Generation, Second Generation, and Third Generation 14 110 Impact of Bioenergy on Ecosystems 14 111 Impact of Bioenergy on the Environment 15 112 Comparison of Bioenergy with Other Renewable Energy Sources 15 113 First- and Second-Generation Biofuels 15 114 Biofuel: Carbon-Neutral Fuel 16 115 Biofuel Policy 17 Summary 18 Solved Numerical Problems 18 References20 2 Production of Biofuels 21 21 Definition of Biomass and Biofuel 21 211 World Scenario of Biomass 21 22 Raw Biomass as an Energy Source and Its Limitation as a Fuel 21 23 Classifications of Biomass22 24 Resources for Production of Biomethanol23 25 Biomethanol23 26 Ethanol25 261 Raw Materials for Ethanol Production25 262 Fermentation25 263 Cellulosic-Based Ethanol Production26 27 Butanol27 28 Higher-Alcohol Fuels28 29 Biomethane and Biogas29 210 Biohydrogen30 2101 Direct Biophotolysis30 2102 Indirect Biophotolysis 31 2103 Biological Water-Gas Conversion 31 2104 Photofermentation Method 31 2105 Dark Fermentation 32 2106 Microbial Electrolytic Cells 32 2107 Multistage Integrated Method 32 211 Biodiesel33 2111 First-Generation Biodiesel33 2112 Second-Generation Biodiesel33 2113 Third-Generation Biodiesel33 212 Fischer Tropsch Diesel34 213 DME36 2131 Dehydrogenation of Methanol36 Summary38 References38 3 Biofuel Quality for Internal Combustion Engines 41 31 Properties of Gasoline Fuel and Their Definitions 41 311 Octane Number 41 312 Sulfur42 313 Olefins42 314 Aromatics43 315 Benzene43 316 Vapor Pressure44 317 Distillation44 318 Lead44 32 Properties of Diesel Fuel and Their Definition46 321 Cetane Number46 322 Density and Viscosity46 323 Sulfur46 324 Aromatics47 325 Distillation Characteristics47 326 Cold-Flow Characteristics47 327 Lubricity47 328 Particulate Contamination48 329 Flash Point48 33 Biofuels for Spark-Ignition Engines49 34 Biofuels for Compression-Ignition Engines49 35 Methanol50 36 Ethanol 51 37 Butanol 52 38 Biogas and Enriched Biogas53 39 Hydrogen54 310 Biodiesel55 311 F-T Diesel55 312 DME 57 Summary58 References 59 4 Introduction to Internal Combustion Engines 61 41 Introduction 61 42 First Law of Thermodynamics 62 43 Second Law of Thermodynamics 62 44 Otto Cycle64 441 Derivation for Thermal Efficiency of Otto Cycle Based Spark-Ignition Engines65 4411 Process 1-265 4412 Process 2-366 4413 Process 3-466 4414 Process 4-166 4415 Mean Effective Pressure of Otto Cycle68 45 Constant Pressure Cycle (Diesel Cycle) 69 451 Derivation of Thermal Efficiency and Mean Effective Pressure for Constant Pressure Cycle 69 4511 Process 1-2 69 4512 Process 2-3 70 4513 Process 3-4 70 4514 Process 4-1 70 4515 Mean Effective Pressure of Diesel Cycle72 46 Dual Cycle72 461 Derivation of Thermal Efficiency and Mean Effective Pressure73 4611 Process 1-273 4612 Process 2-373 4613 Process 3-473 4614 Process 4-573 4615 Process 5-1 74 47 Two- and Four-Stroke Internal Combustion Engines 76 471 Two-Stroke Engine 76 472 Four-Stroke Engine77 48 Classification of Internal Combustion Engines 78 49 General Specifications of Internal Combustion Engines82 410 Automotive Vehicles83 411 Power Generator Set Engines with Alternator83 412 Power Output and Emissions84 413 Comparison of Internal Combustion Engines with Gas Turbine and Steam Turbine Engines85 414 Selection of Heat Engines for Industrial Applications88 415 Comparison between Spark-Ignition Engines and Compression-Ignition Engines89 416 NOx Emission Reduction Techniques 91 4161 EGR 91 4162 SCR93 4163 Lean NOx Trap94 4164 Water Injection94 4165 Optimization of Injection Timing96 417 PM Emission Reduction Techniques96 4171 PM Emission Reduction by Better Fuel Quality96 4172 PM Emission Reduction by Improving Aerodynamic Characteristics97 4173 PM Emission Reduction by Better Fuel Spray Characteristics97 4174 PM Emission Reduction by Optimizing Combustion Phase97 4175 PM Emission Reduction by Design, Operating Parameters, and Combustion Phasing97 4176 PM Emission Reduction by Aftertreatment Devices98 Summary98 Solved Numerical Problems99 References 102 5 Basic Processes of Internal Combustion Engines 103 51 Spark-Ignition Engines 103 511 Fuel Induction/Injection 104 5111 Carburetor 105 5112 Manifold Injection 106 5113 Port Injection 107 5114 Direct Injection 107 512 Volumetric Air Efficiency 109 513 Charge Motion 109 5131 Swirl 109 5132 Tumble 109 514 Ignition 111 5141 Minimum Ignition Energy 111 5142 Breakdown Energy from a Spark Plug 112 5143 Diameter of a Flame Kernel 113 515 Combustion 113 5151 Instantaneous Cylinder Volume 113 5152 Mean Piston Speed 114 5153 Instantaneous Piston Speed 114 5154 In-Cylinder Temperature 115 5155 Rate of Pressure Rise 115 5156 Heat Release Rate 115 5157 Mass Fraction Burned 116 5158 Correlation for Convective Heat Transfer Coefficient 116 5159 Turbulent Flame Speed 116 51510 Laminar Flame Speed 117 51511 Combustion Efficiency 118 51512 Combustion Duration 118 516 Performance 118 5161 Indicated Power 118 5162 Brake Power 119 5163 Thermal Efficiency 119 517 Emissions 119 5171 CO Emission 119 5172 Hydrocarbon Emission 120 5173 NOx Emission 120 52 Compression-Ignition Engines122 521 Fuel Injection Characteristics122 522 Fuel Spray Characteristics 123 5221 SMD 123 5222 Spray Breakup Length 123 5223 Spray Cone Angle 123 5224 Spray Penetration 125 5225 Air Entrainment 125 523 Mixing Process: Swirl and Squish 125 5231 Swirl Ratio 125 5232 Squish 126 524 Ignition 127 525 Combustion 127 5251 Premixed Charge Preparation Rate 127 5252 Percentage of Total Premixed Charge Energy 127 5253 Degree of Homogeneity 128 5254 Adiabatic Flame Temperature 128 526 Emissions 129 5261 Soot 129 5262 Smoke 130 5263 Particulate Matter 130 53 Analysis of the IC Engine Process Using Models and Simulation 131 531 Zero-Dimensional Model 131 5311 Classification of the Zero-Dimensional Model 131 5312 Quasi-Dimensional Model/Phenomenological Model 132 5313 Multidimensional Model 132 Summary 133 References 134 6 Utilization of Biofuels in Spark-Ignition Engines 135 61 Introduction 135 62 Liquid Biofuels 135 621 Advantages of Biofuel Use in Spark-Ignition Engines 135 622 Disadvantages of Alcohol Fuel Use in Spark-Ignition Engines 137 63 Utilization of Methanol in Spark-Ignition Engines 138 64 Utilization of Ethanol in Spark-Ignition Engines 139 65 Utilization of Butanol in Spark-Ignition Engines 139 651 Comparison of Performance and Emissions of Different Spark-Ignition Engines with Alcohol Fuels 141 66 Utilization of Raw Biogas in Spark-Ignition Engines 141 67 Utilization of Enriched Biogas in Spark-Ignition Engines 145 68 Utilization of Hydrogen in Spark-Ignition Engines 146 681 Backfire 146 682 Power Drop 147 683 NOx Emission 147 Summary 148 Solved Numerical Problems 149 References 166 7 Utilization of Biofuels in Compression-Ignition Engines 171 71 General Working Principle of Compression-Ignition Engines 171 711 Suction Stroke 171 712 Compression Stroke 172 713 Injection Characteristics 172 714 Fuel Spray Characteristics 172 715 Ignition 173 72 Emissions 173 721 Carbon Monoxide 174 722 Air-Fuel Ratio 174 723 Lower In-Cylinder Temperature 174 724 Lower Degree of Homogeneous Charge 174 725 Dissociation of CO2 at High Temperature 174 726 HC 175 727 NOx 175 728 PM 175 73 Utilization of Biodiesel in Compression-Ignition Engines 176 731 Effect of Biodiesel-Diesel Blends on Injection and Spray Characteristics of a Diesel Engine 176 732 Wall Impingement 177 733 Ignition 178 734 Combustion Characteristics of Biodiesel-Fueled Compression- Ignition Engines 179 735 Performance and Emission Characteristics of Diesel Engines Using Biodiesel 179 74 Utilization of F-T Diesel in Compression-Ignition Engines 184 75 Utilization of DME in Compression-Ignition Engines 184 Summary 187 Solved Numerical Problems 187 References 195 8 Biofueled Reactivity Controlled Compression-Ignition Engines 201 81 Introduction to Conventional Heterogeneous Charge, Premixed Charge, Homogeneous Charge, and Reactivity Charge 201 811 Heterogeneous Charge 201 812 PCCI 202 813 HCCI 202 814 HCCI Strategy in CI Engines203 82 RCCI204 83 Case Study: Diesel/CNG and HCNG Fuel and Dual-Fuel RCCI Engine Mode205 831 Dual-Fuel Engine205 Summary 210 Solved Numerical Problem 210 References 211 9 Effect of Biofuels on GHGs 215 91 Introduction to GHGs 215 911 Leading GHGs 215 92 Greenhouse Effect from GHGs in the Atmosphere 216 93 GHG Emissions from Internal Combustion Engines 217 94 Are Biofuels Carbon-Neutral? 218 95 CO2 Emission from Internal Combustion Engines220 951 Carbon Balance Method for Determination of CO2 Emission220 952 Relationship between CO2 and Mass Flow Rate of Fuel 221 953 Relationship between Mass Flow Rate of Fuel and Thermal Efficiency 221 954 Relationship between CO2 and Thermal Efficiency 221 955 Typical Example of Localized and Globalized Pollution222 956 CO2 Emission from Biofueled Engines223 96 Effect of Gaseous Fuels (CNG/Hydrogen) on CO2 Emission in a Dual-Fuel Diesel Engine (CNG-Diesel, Hydrogen-Diesel)223 97 Effect of Carbon Content in Fuel on CO2 Emission223 98 Effect of Energy Efficiency on CO2 Emission226 99 Methane Emission from Internal Combustion Engines227 991 Methane Concentration in the Troposphere and Stratosphere227 992 Methane, Nonmethane Hydrocarbon, and Tota