TREATISE ON MATERIALS SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY: ION IMPLANTATION

By MICHAEL SMITH

CONTENTS GENERAL FEATURES AND FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS 1 1 INTRODUCTION 1 2 RANGE DISTRIBUTIONS 1 3 LATTICE DISORDER 1 4 ATOMIC AND PLANAR DENSITIES 1 5 ENERGY AND PARTICLES 1 6 THE BOHR VELOCITY AND RADIUS SUGGESTED READING PROBLEMS PARTICLE INTERACTIONS 2 1 INTRODUCTION 2 3 SHORT- AND LONG-RANGE INTERATOMIC FORCES 2 4 INTERATOMIC FORCES IN SOLIDS 2 5 ENERGETIC COLLISIONS OF ATOMS AND IONS AND THE SCREENED COULOMB POTENTIAL 2 6 SCREENING FUNCTIONS 2 7 SCREENING LENGTH REFERENCES DYNAMICS OF BINARY ELASTIC COLLISIONS 3 1 INTRODUCTION 3 2 CLASSICAL SCATTERING THEORY 3 3 KINEMATICS OF ELASTIC COLLISIONS 3 4 CENTER-OF-MASS COORDINATES 3 5 MOTION UNDER A CENTRAL FORCE 3 5 1 ENERGY CONSERVATION IN A CENTRAL FORCE 3 5 2 ANGULAR ORBITAL MOMENTUM AND THE IMPACT PARAMETERS 3 6 DISTANCE OF CLOSEST APPROACH 2 2 INTERATOMIC FORCES CROSS-SECTION 4 1 INTRODUCTION 4 2 SCATTERING CROSS-SECTION 4 3 ENERGY-TRANSFER CROSS-SECTION 4 4 APPROXIMATION TO THE ENERGY-TRANSFER CROSS-SECTION ION STOPPING 5 1 INTRODUCTION 5 2 THE ENERGY-LOSS PROCESS 5 3 NUCLEAR STOPPING 5 4 ZBL NUCLEAR STOPPING CROSS-SECTION 5 5 ELECTRONIC STOPPING 5 5 1 HIGH-ENERGY ELECTRONIC ENERGY LOSS 5 5 2 LOW-ENERGY ELECTRONIC ENERGY LOSS ION RANGE AND RANGE DISTRIBUTION 6 1 RANGE CONCEPTS 6 2 RANGE DISTRIBUTIONS 6 3 CALCULATIONS 6 3 1 RANGE APPROXIMATIONS 6 3 2 PROJECTED RANGE 6 3 3 RANGE STRAGGLING 6 3 4 POLYATOMIC TARGETS 6 4 RANGE DISTRIBUTIONS FROM SRIM DISPLACEMENTS AND RADIATION DAMAGE 7 1 INTRODUCTION 7 2 RADIATION DAMAGE AND DISPLACEMENT ENERGY 7 3 DISPLACEMENTS PRODUCED BY A PRIMARY KNOCK-ON 7 4 PRIMARY KNOCK-ON ATOM DAMAGE ENERGY 7 5 ION DAMAGE ENERGY 7 6 DAMAGE PRODUCTION RATE AND DPA 7 7 REPLACEMENT COLLISION SEQUENCES 7 8 SPIKES 7 8 1 MEAN FREE PATH AND THE DISPLACEMENT SPIKE 7 8 2 THERMAL SPIKE 5 6 STOPPING CALCULATIONS USING SRIM CONTENTS 7 9 DAMAGE DISTRIBUTION FROM SRIM CHANNELING 8 1 INTRODUCTION 8 2 GENERAL PRINCIPLES 8 3 THE MAXIMUM RANGE, RMAX 8 4 DECHANNELING BY DEFECTS DOPING, DIFFUSION AND DEFECTS IN ION-IMPLANTED SI 9 1 JUNCTIONS AND TRANSISTORS 9 1 1 BIPOLAR TRANSISTORS 9 1 2 METAL-OXIDE-SEMICONDUCTOR FIELD-EFFECT TRANSISTORS 9 1 3 COMPLEMENTARY METAL OXIDE SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES 9 2 DEFECTS 9 2 1 POINT DEFECTS 9 2 2 NATIVE DEFECTS AND SHALLOW DOPANTS 9 2 3 DEEP LEVEL CENTERS 9 2 4 LINE DEFECTS 9 2 5 PLANAR DEFECTS 9 2 6 VOLUME DEFECTS 9 3 FICK’S FIRST AND SECOND LAW OF DIFFUSION 9 3 1 DIFFUSION COEFFICIENT 9 3 2 DIFFUSION OF DOPING ATOMS INTO SI 9 4 DIFFUSION MECHANISMS 9 4 1 INTERSTITIAL MECHANISM 9 4 2 SUBSTITUTIONAL OR VACANCY MECHANISM 9 4 4 INTERSTITIALCY AND THE KICK-OUT MECHANISM 9 5 TRANSIENT ENHANCED DIFFUSION OF BORON 9 6 IRRADIATION–ENHANCED DIFFUSION CRYSTALLIZATION AND REGROWTH OF AMORPHOUS SI 10 1 INTRODUCTION 10 2 EPITAXIAL GROWTH OF IMPLANTED AMORPHOUS SI 10 3 ION BEAM-INDUCED ENHANCED CRYSTALLIZATION 10 4 LASER ANNEALING OF SI 9 4 3 INTERSTITIAL–SUBSTITUTIONAL MECHANISM SI SLICING AND LAYER TRANSFER: ION-CUT 11 1 INTRODUCTION 11 2 FORMATION OF SOI BY THE ION-CUT PROCESS 11 4 THE MECHANISMS BEHIND THE ION-CUT PROCESS 11 4 1 THE ION-CUT DEPTH 11 4 2 MICROSTRUCTURE OF THE IMPLANTATION ZONE SURFACE EROSION DURING IMPLANTATION: SPUTTERING 12 1 INTRODUCTION 12 2 SPUTTERING OF SINGLE-ELEMENT TARGETS 12 3 ION IMPLANTATION AND THE STEADY STATE CONCENTRATION 12 4 SPUTTERING OF ALLOYS AND COMPOUNDS 12 4 1 PREFERENTIAL SPUTTERING 12 4 2 COMPOSITIONAL CHANGES 12 4 3 COMPOSITION DEPTH PROFILES 12 5 HIGH-DOSE ION IMPLANTATION 12 6 CONCENTRATIONS OF IMPLANTED SPECIES 12 6 1 SI IMPLANTED WITH 45 KEV PT IONS 12 6 2 PT IMPLANTED WITH 45 KEV SI IONS 12 6 3 PTSI IMPLANTED WITH SI 12 7 CONCENTRATIONS IN HIGH-DOSE ION IMPLANTATION 12 8 COMPUTER SIMULATION ION-INDUCED ATOMIC INTERMIXING AT THE INTERFACE: ION BEAM MIXING 13 1 INTRODUCTION 13 2 BALLISTIC MIXING 13 2 1 RECOIL MIXING 13 2 2 CASCADE MIXING 13 3 THERMODYNAMIC EFFECTS IN ION MIXING APPLICATION OF ION IMPLANTATION TECHNIQUES IN CMOS FABRICATION 14 1 INTRODUCTION 14 2 ISSUES DURING DEVICE SCALING 14 2 1 SHORT-CHANNEL EFFECTS 14 2 2 HOT-ELECTRON EFFECT 14 2 3 LATCHUP 14 3 ION IMPLANTATION IN ADVANCED CMOS DEVICE FABRICATION 14 3 1 RETROGRADE WELL IMPLANT 11 3 THE SILICON–HYDROGEN SYSTEM CONTENTS 14 3 2 PUNCH-THROUGH STOP IMPLANT 14 3 3 THRESHOLD ADJUST IMPLANT 14 3 4 SOURCE AND DRAIN IMPLANT 14 3 5 HALO IMPLANT 14 3 6 GATE IMPLANT 14 4 ISSUES OF ION IMPLANTATION DURING DEVICE SCALING 14 4 1 SPACE CHARGE EFFECTS 14 4 2 ENERGY CONTAMINATION 14 4 3 BEAM SHADOWING EFFECT 14 5 THE ROLE OF ION IMPLANTATIONS IN DEVICE FABRICATIONS ION IMPLANTATION IN CMOS TECHNOLOGY: MACHINE CHALLENGES 15 1 INTRODUCTION 15 2 IMPLANTERS USED IN CMOS PROCESSING 15 2 1 BEAMLINE ARCHITECTURES 15 2 2 OTHER SUBSYSTEMS 15 3 LOW ENERGY PRODUCTIVITY: BEAM TRANSPORT 15 3 1 SPACE CHARGE NEUTRALIZATION 15 3 2 DECEL IMPLANTATION 15 3 3 MOLECULAR IMPLANTATION 15 4 LOW ENERGY PRODUCTIVITY: BEAM UTILIZATION 15 4 1 BEAM UTILIZATION 15 4 2 IMPLANTERS COMMERCIALIZED IN THE PAST 35 YEARS 15 5 ANGLE CONTROL 15 5 1 IMPACT OF BEAM STEERING ERRORS ON DEVICE PERFORMANCE… 15 5 2 IMPACT OF ENDSTATION DESIGN AND BEAM SCAN MECHANISM 15 6 CONCLUSIONS AND THE FUTURE OF ION IMPLANTATION IN SEMICONDUCTORS