MODERN PHYSICAL METALLURGY AND MATERIALS ENGINEERING
CONTENTS 1 THE STRUCTURE AND BONDING OF ATOMS 1 1 THE REALM OF MATERIALS SCIENCE 1 2 THE FREE ATOM 1 2 1 THE FOUR ELECTRON QUANTUM NUMBERS 1 2 2 NOMENCLATURE FOR ELECTRONIC STATES 1 3 THE PERIODIC TABLE 1 4 INTERATOMIC BONDING IN MATERIALS 1 5 BONDING AND ENERGY LEVELS 2 ATOMIC ARRANGEMENTS IN MATERIALS 2 1 THE CONCEPT OF ORDERING 2 2 CRYSTAL LATTICES AND STRUCTURES 2 3 CRYSTAL DIRECTIONS AND PLANES 2 4 STEREOGRAPHIC PROJECTION 2 5 SELECTED CRYSTAL STRUCTURES 2 5 1 PURE METALS 2 5 2 DIAMOND AND GRAPHITE 2 5 3 COORDINATION IN IONIC CRYSTALS 2 5 4 AB-TYPE COMPOUNDS 2 5 5 SILICA 2 5 6 ALUMINA 2 5 7 COMPLEX OXIDES 2 5 8 SILICATES 2 6 INORGANIC GLASSES 2 6 1 NETWORK STRUCTURES IN GLASSES 2 6 2 CLASSI?CATION OF CONSTITUENT OXIDES 2 7 POLYMERIC STRUCTURES 2 7 1 THERMOPLASTICS 2 7 2 ELASTOMERS 2 7 3 THERMOSETS 2 7 4 CRYSTALLINITY IN POLYMERS 3 STRUCTURAL PHASES; THEIR FORMATION AND TRANSITIONS 3 1 CRYSTALLIZATION FROM THE MELT 3 1 1 FREEZING OF A PURE METAL 3 1 2 PLANE-FRONT AND DENDRITIC SOLIDI?CATION AT A COOLED SURFACE 3 1 3 FORMS OF CAST STRUCTURE 3 1 4 GAS POROSITY AND SEGREGATION 3 1 5 DIRECTIONAL SOLIDI?CATION 3 1 6 PRODUCTION OF METALLIC SINGLE CRYSTALS FOR RESEARCH 3 2 PRINCIPLES AND APPLICATIONS OF PHASE DIAGRAMS 3 2 1 THE CONCEPT OF A PHASE 3 2 2 THE PHASE RULE 3 2 3 STABILITY OF PHASES 3 2 4 TWO-PHASE EQUILIBRIA 3 2 5 THREE-PHASE EQUILIBRIA AND REACTIONS 3 2 6 INTERMEDIATE PHASES 3 2 7 LIMITATIONS OF PHASE DIAGRAMS 3 2 8 SOME KEY PHASE DIAGRAMS 3 2 9 TERNARY PHASE DIAGRAMS 3 3 PRINCIPLES OF ALLOY THEORY 3 3 1 PRIMARY SUBSTITUTIONAL SOLID SOLUTIONS 3 3 2 INTERSTITIAL SOLID SOLUTIONS 3 3 3 TYPES OF INTERMEDIATE PHASES 3 3 4 ORDER-DISORDER PHENOMENA 3 4 THE MECHANISM OF PHASE CHANGES 3 4 1 KINETIC CONSIDERATIONS 3 4 2 HOMOGENEOUS NUCLEATION 3 4 3 HETEROGENEOUS NUCLEATION 3 4 4 NUCLEATION IN SOLIDS 4 DEFECTS IN SOLIDS 4 1 TYPES OF IMPERFECTION 4 2 POINT DEFECTS 4 2 1 POINT DEFECTS IN METALS 4 2 2 POINT DEFECTS IN NON-METALLIC CRYSTALS 4 2 3 IRRADIATION OF SOLIDS 4 2 4 POINT DEFECT CONCENTRATION AND ANNEALING 4 3 LINE DEFECTS 4 3 1 CONCEPT OF A DISLOCATION 4 3 2 EDGE AND SCREW DISLOCATIONS 4 3 3 THE BURGERS VECTOR 4 3 4 MECHANISMS OF SLIP AND CLIMB 4 3 5 STRAIN ENERGY ASSOCIATED WITH DISLOCATIONS 4 3 6 DISLOCATIONS IN IONIC STRUCTURES 4 4 PLANAR DEFECTS 4 4 1 GRAIN BOUNDARIES 4 4 2 TWIN BOUNDARIES 4 4 3 EXTENDED DISLOCATIONS AND STACKING FAULTS IN CLOSE-PACKED CRYSTALS 4 5 VOLUME DEFECTS 4 5 1 VOID FORMATION AND ANNEALING 4 5 2 IRRADIATION AND VOIDING 4 5 3 VOIDING AND FRACTURE 4 6 DEFECT BEHAVIOUR IN SOME REAL MATERIALS 4 6 1 DISLOCATION VECTOR DIAGRAMS AND THE THOMPSON TETRAHEDRON 4 6 2 DISLOCATIONS AND STACKING FAULTS IN FCC STRUCTURES 4 6 3 DISLOCATIONS AND STACKING FAULTS IN CPH STRUCTURES 4 6 4 DISLOCATIONS AND STACKING FAULTS IN BCC STRUCTURES 4 6 5 DISLOCATIONS AND STACKING FAULTS IN ORDERED STRUCTURES 4 6 6 DISLOCATIONS AND STACKING FAULTS IN CERAMICS 4 6 7 DEFECTS IN CRYSTALLINE POLYMERS 4 6 8 DEFECTS IN GLASSES 4 7 STABILITY OF DEFECTS 4 7 1 DISLOCATION LOOPS 4 7 2 VOIDS 4 7 3 NUCLEAR IRRADIATION EFFECTS 5 THE CHARACTERIZATION OF MATERIALS 5 1 TOOLS OF CHARACTERIZATION 5 2 LIGHT MICROSCOPY 5 2 1 BASIC PRINCIPLES 5 2 2 SELECTED MICROSCOPICAL TECHNIQUES 5 3 X-RAY DIFFRACTION ANALYSIS 5 3 1 PRODUCTION AND ABSORPTION OF X-RAYS 5 3 2 DIFFRACTION OF X-RAYS BY CRYSTALS 5 3 3 X-RAY DIFFRACTION METHODS 5 3 4 TYPICAL INTERPRETATIVE PROCEDURES FOR DIFFRACTION PATTERNS 5 4 ANALYTICAL ELECTRON MICROSCOPY 5 4 1 INTERACTION OF AN ELECTRON BEAM WITH A SOLID 5 4 2 THE TRANSMISSION ELECTRON MICROSCOPE (TEM) 5 4 3 THE SCANNING ELECTRON MICROSCOPE 5 4 4 THEORETICAL ASPECTS OF TEM 5 4 5 CHEMICAL MICROANALYSIS 5 4 6 ELECTRON ENERGY LOSS SPECTROSCOPY (EELS) 5 4 7 AUGER ELECTRON SPECTROSCOPY (AES) 5 5 OBSERVATION OF DEFECTS 5 5 1 ETCH PITTING 5 5 2 DISLOCATION DECORATION 5 5 3 DISLOCATION STRAIN CONTRAST IN TEM 5 5 4 CONTRAST FROM CRYSTALS 5 5 5 IMAGING OF DISLOCATIONS 5 5 6 IMAGING OF STACKING FAULTS 5 5 7 APPLICATION OF DYNAMICAL THEORY 5 5 8 WEAK-BEAM MICROSCOPY 5 6 SPECIALIZED BOMBARDMENT TECHNIQUES 5 6 1 NEUTRON DIFFRACTION 5 6 2 SYNCHROTRON RADIATION STUDIES 5 6 3 SECONDARY ION MASS SPECTROMETRY (SIMS) 5 7 THERMAL ANALYSIS 5 7 1 GENERAL CAPABILITIES OF THERMAL ANALYSIS 5 7 2 THERMOGRAVIMETRIC ANALYSIS 5 7 3 DIFFERENTIAL THERMAL ANALYSIS 5 7 4 DIFFERENTIAL SCANNING CALORIMETRY 6 THE PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS 6 1 INTRODUCTION 6 2 DENSITY 6 3 THERMAL PROPERTIES 6 3 1 THERMAL EXPANSION 6 3 2 SPECI?C HEAT CAPACITY 6 3 3 THE SPECI?C HEAT CURVE AND TRANSFORMATIONS 6 3 4 FREE ENERGY OF TRANSFORMATION 6 4 DIFFUSION 6 4 1 DIFFUSION LAWS 6 4 2 MECHANISMS OF DIFFUSION 6 4 3 FACTORS AFFECTING DIFFUSION 6 5 ANELASTICITY AND INTERNAL FRICTION 6 6 ORDERING IN ALLOYS 6 6 1 LONG-RANGE AND SHORT-RANGE ORDER 6 6 2 DETECTION OF ORDERING 6 6 3 IN?UENCE OF ORDERING UPON PROPERTIES 6 7 ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES 6 7 1 ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY 6 7 2 SEMICONDUCTORS 6 7 3 SUPERCONDUCTIVITY 6 7 4 OXIDE SUPERCONDUCTORS 6 8 MAGNETIC PROPERTIES 6 8 1 MAGNETIC SUSCEPTIBILITY 6 8 2 DIAMAGNETISM AND PARAMAGNETISM 6 8 3 FERROMAGNETISM 6 8 4 MAGNETIC ALLOYS 6 8 5 ANTI-FERROMAGNETISM AND FERRIMAGNETISM 6 9 DIELECTRIC MATERIALS 6 9 1 POLARIZATION 6 9 2 CAPACITORS AND INSULATORS 6 9 3 PIEZOELECTRIC MATERIALS 6 9 4 PYROELECTRIC AND FERROELECTRIC MATERIALS 6 10 OPTICAL PROPERTIES 6 10 1 RE?ECTION, ABSORPTION AND TRANSMISSION EFFECTS 6 10 2 OPTICAL ?BRES 6 10 3 LASERS 6 10 4 CERAMIC ‘WINDOWS’ 6 10 5 ELECTRO-OPTIC CERAMICS 7 MECHANICAL BEHAVIOUR OF MATERIALS 7 1 MECHANICAL TESTING PROCEDURES 7 1 1 INTRODUCTION 7 1 2 THE TENSILE TEST 7 1 3 INDENTATION HARDNESS TESTING 7 1 4 IMPACT TESTING 7 1 5 CREEP TESTING 7 1 6 FATIGUE TESTING 7 1 7 TESTING OF CERAMICS 7 2 ELASTIC DEFORMATION 7 2 1 ELASTIC DEFORMATION OF METALS 7 2 2 ELASTIC DEFORMATION OF CERAMICS 7 3 PLASTIC DEFORMATION 7 3 1 SLIP AND TWINNING 7 3 2 RESOLVED SHEAR STRESS 7 3 3 RELATION OF SLIP TO CRYSTAL STRUCTURE 7 3 4 LAW OF CRITICAL RESOLVED SHEAR STRESS 7 3 5 MULTIPLE SLIP 7 3 6 RELATION BETWEEN WORK-HARDENING AND SLIP 7 4 DISLOCATION BEHAVIOUR DURING PLASTIC DEFORMATION 7 4 1 DISLOCATION MOBILITY 7 4 2 VARIATION OF YIELD STRESS WITH TEMPERATURE AND STRAIN RATE 7 4 3 DISLOCATION SOURCE OPERATION 7 4 4 DISCONTINUOUS YIELDING 7 4 5 YIELD POINTS AND CRYSTAL STRUCTURE 7 4 6 DISCONTINUOUS YIELDING IN ORDERED ALLOYS 7 4 7 SOLUTE–DISLOCATION INTERACTION 7 4 8 DISLOCATION LOCKING AND TEMPERATURE 7 4 9 INHOMOGENEITY INTERACTION 7 4 10 KINETICS OF STRAIN-AGEING 7 4 11 IN?UENCE OF GRAIN BOUNDARIES ON PLASTICITY 7 4 12 SUPERPLASTICITY 7 5 MECHANICAL TWINNING 7 5 1 CRYSTALLOGRAPHY OF TWINNING 7 5 2 NUCLEATION AND GROWTH OF TWINS 7 5 3 EFFECT OF IMPURITIES ON TWINNING 7 5 4 EFFECT OF PRESTRAIN ON TWINNING 7 5 5 DISLOCATION MECHANISM OF TWINNING 7 5 6 TWINNING AND FRACTURE 7 6 STRENGTHENING AND HARDENING MECHANISMS 7 6 1 POINT DEFECT HARDENING 7 6 2 WORK-HARDENING 7 6 3 DEVELOPMENT OF PREFERRED ORIENTATION 7 7 MACROSCOPIC PLASTICITY 7 7 1 TRESCA AND VON MISES CRITERIA 7 7 2 EFFECTIVE STRESS AND STRAIN 7 8 ANNEALING 7 8 1 GENERAL EFFECTS OF ANNEALING 7 8 2 RECOVERY 7 8 3 RECRYSTALLIZATION 7 8 4 GRAIN GROWTH 7 8 5 ANNEALING TWINS 7 8 6 RECRYSTALLIZATION TEXTURES 7 9 METALLIC CREEP 7 9 1 TRANSIENT AND STEADY-STATE CREEP 7 9 2 GRAIN BOUNDARY CONTRIBUTION TO CREEP 7 9 3 TERTIARY CREEP AND FRACTURE 7 9 4 CREEP-RESISTANT ALLOY DESIGN 7 10 DEFORMATION MECHANISM MAPS 7 11 METALLIC FATIGUE 7 11 1 NATURE OF FATIGUE FAILURE 7 11 2 ENGINEERING ASPECTS OF FATIGUE 7 11 3 STRUCTURAL CHANGES ACCOMPANYING FATIGUE 7 11 4 CRACK FORMATION AND FATIGUE FAILURE 7 11 5 FATIGUE AT ELEVATED TEMPERATURES 8 STRENGTHENING AND TOUGHENING 8 1 INTRODUCTION 8 2 STRENGTHENING OF NON-FERROUS ALLOYS BY HEAT-TREATMENT 8 2 1 PRECIPITATION-HARDENING OF AL–CU ALLOYS 8 2 2 PRECIPITATION-HARDENING OF AL–AG ALLOYS 8 2 3 MECHANISMS OF PRECIPITATION-HARDENING 8 2 4 VACANCIES AND PRECIPITATION 8 2 5 DUPLEX AGEING 8 2 6 PARTICLE-COARSENING 8 2 7 SPINODAL DECOMPOSITION 8 3 STRENGTHENING OF STEELS BY HEAT-TREATMENT 8 3 1 TIME–TEMPERATURE–TRANSFORMATION DIAGRAMS 8 3 2 AUSTENITE–PEARLITE TRANSFORMATION 8 3 3 AUSTENITE–MARTENSITE TRANSFORMATION 8 3 4 AUSTENITE–BAINITE TRANSFORMATION 8 3 5 TEMPERING OF MARTENSITE 8 3 6 THERMO-MECHANICAL TREATMENTS 8 4 FRACTURE AND TOUGHNESS 8 4 1 GRIF?TH MICRO-CRACK CRITERION 8 4 2 FRACTURE TOUGHNESS 8 4 3 CLEAVAGE AND THE DUCTILE–BRITTLE TRANSITION 8 4 4 FACTORS AFFECTING BRITTLENESS OF STEELS 8 4 5 HYDROGEN EMBRITTLEMENT OF STEELS 8 4 6 INTERGRANULAR FRACTURE 8 4 7 DUCTILE FAILURE 8 4 8 RUPTURE 8 4 9 VOIDING AND FRACTURE AT ELEVATED TEMPERATURES 8 4 10 FRACTURE MECHANISM MAPS 8 4 11 CRACK GROWTH UNDER FATIGUE CONDITIONS 9 MODERN ALLOY DEVELOPMENTS 9 1 INTRODUCTION 9 2 COMMERCIAL STEELS 9 2 1 PLAIN CARBON STEELS 9 2 2 ALLOY STEELS 9 2 3 MARAGING STEELS 9 2 4 HIGH-STRENGTH LOW-ALLOY (HSLA) STEELS 9 2 5 DUAL-PHASE (DP) STEELS 9 2 6 MECHANICALLY ALLOYED (MA) STEELS 9 2 7 DESIGNATION OF STEELS 9 3 CAST IRONS 9 4 SUPERALLOYS 9 4 1 BASIC ALLOYING FEATURES 9 4 2 NICKEL-BASED SUPERALLOY DEVELOPMENT 9 4 3 DISPERSION-HARDENED SUPERALLOYS 9 5 TITANIUM ALLOYS 9 5 1 BASIC ALLOYING AND HEAT-TREATMENT FEATURES 9 5 2 COMMERCIAL TITANIUM ALLOYS 9 5 3 PROCESSING OF TITANIUM ALLOYS 9 6 STRUCTURAL INTERMETALLIC COMPOUNDS 9 6 1 GENERAL PROPERTIES OF INTERMETALLIC COMPOUNDS 9 6 2 NICKEL ALUMINIDES 9 6 3 TITANIUM ALUMINIDES 9 6 4 OTHER INTERMETALLIC COMPOUNDS 9 7 ALUMINIUM ALLOYS 9 7 1 DESIGNATION OF ALUMINIUM ALLOYS 9 7 2 APPLICATIONS OF ALUMINIUM ALLOYS 9 7 3 ALUMINIUM-LITHIUM ALLOYS 9 7 4 PROCESSING DEVELOPMENTS 10 CERAMICS AND GLASSES 10 1 CLASSI?CATION OF CERAMICS 10 2 GENERAL PROPERTIES OF CERAMICS 10 3 PRODUCTION OF CERAMIC POWDERS 10 4 SELECTED ENGINEERING CERAMICS 10 4 1 ALUMINA 10 4 2 FROM SILICON NITRIDE TO SIALONS 10 4 3 ZIRCONIA 10 4 4 GLASS-CERAMICS 10 4 5 SILICON CARBIDE 10 4 6 CARBON 10 5 ASPECTS OF GLASS TECHNOLOGY 10 5 1 VISCOUS DEFORMATION OF GLASS 10 5 2 SOME SPECIAL GLASSES 10 5 3 TOUGHENED AND LAMINATED GLASSES 10 6 THE TIME-DEPENDENCY OF STRENGTH IN CERAMICS AND GLASSES 11 PLASTICS AND COMPOSITES 11 1 UTILIZATION OF POLYMERIC MATERIALS 11 1 1 INTRODUCTION 11 1 2 MECHANICAL ASPECTS OF TG 11 1 3 THE ROLE OF ADDITIVES 11 1 4 SOME APPLICATIONS OF IMPORTANT PLASTICS 11 1 5 MANAGEMENT OF WASTE PLASTICS 11 2 BEHAVIOUR OF PLASTICS DURING PROCESSING 11 2 1 COLD-DRAWING AND CRAZING 11 2 2 PROCESSING METHODS FOR THERMOPLASTICS 11 2 3 PRODUCTION OF THERMOSETS 11 2 4 VISCOUS ASPECTS OF MELT BEHAVIOUR 11 2 5 ELASTIC ASPECTS OF MELT BEHAVIOUR 11 2 6 FLOW DEFECTS 11 3 FIBRE-REINFORCED COMPOSITE MATERIALS 11 3 1 INTRODUCTION TO BASIC STRUCTURAL PRINCIPLES 11 3 2 TYPES OF ?BRE-REINFORCED COMPOSITE 12 CORROSION AND SURFACE ENGINEERING 12 1 THE ENGINEERING IMPORTANCE OF SURFACES 12 2 METALLIC CORROSION 12 2 1 OXIDATION AT HIGH TEMPERATURES 12 2 2 AQUEOUS CORROSION 12 3 SURFACE ENGINEERING 12 3 1 THE COATING AND MODI?CATION OF SURFACES 12 3 2 SURFACE COATING BY VAPOUR DEPOSITION 12 3 3 SURFACE COATING BY PARTICLE BOMBARDMENT 12 3 4 SURFACE MODI?CATION WITH HIGH-ENERGY BEAMS 13 BIOMATERIALS 13 1 INTRODUCTION 13 2 REQUIREMENTS FOR BIOMATERIALS 13 3 DENTAL MATERIALS 13 3 1 CAVITY ?LLERS 13 3 2 BRIDGES, CROWNS AND DENTURES 13 3 3 DENTAL IMPLANTS 13 4 THE STRUCTURE OF BONE AND BONE FRACTURES 13 5 REPLACEMENT JOINTS 13 5 1 HIP JOINTS 13 5 2 SHOULDER JOINTS 13 5 3 KNEE JOINTS 13 5 4 FINGER JOINTS AND HAND SURGERY 13 6 RECONSTRUCTIVE SURGERY 13 6 1 PLASTIC SURGERY 13 6 2 MAXILLOFACIAL SURGERY 13 6 3 EAR IMPLANTS 13 7 BIOMATERIALS FOR HEART REPAIR 13 7 1 HEART VALVES 13 7 2 PACEMAKERS 13 7 3 ARTI?CIAL ARTERIES 13 8 TISSUE REPAIR AND GROWTH 13 9 OTHER SURGICAL APPLICATIONS 13 10 OPHTHALMICS 13 11 DRUG DELIVERY SYSTEMS 14 MATERIALS FOR SPORTS 14 1 THE REVOLUTION IN SPORTS PRODUCTS 14 2 THE TRADITION OF USING WOOD 14 3 TENNIS RACKETS 14 3 1 FRAMES FOR TENNIS RACKETS 14 3 2 STRINGS FOR TENNIS RACKETS 14 4 GOLF CLUBS 14 4 1 KINETIC ASPECTS OF A GOLF STROKE 14 4 2 GOLF CLUB SHAFTS 14 4 3 WOOD-TYPE CLUB HEADS 14 4 4 IRON-TYPE CLUB HEADS 14 4 5 PUTTING HEADS 14 5 ARCHERY BOWS AND ARROWS 14 5 1 THE LONGBOW 14 5 2 BOW DESIGN 14 5 3 ARROW DESIGN 14 6 BICYCLES FOR SPORT 14 6 1 FRAME DESIGN 14 6 2 JOINING TECHNIQUES FOR METALLIC FRAMES 14 6 3 FRAME ASSEMBLY USING EPOXY ADHESIVES 14 6 4 COMPOSITE FRAMES 14 6 5 BICYCLE WHEELS 14 7 FENCING FOILS 14 8 MATERIALS FOR SNOW SPORTS 14 8 1 GENERAL REQUIREMENTS 14 8 2 SNOWBOARDING EQUIPMENT 14 8 3 SKIING EQUIPMENT 14 9 SAFETY HELMETS 14 9 1 FUNCTION AND FORM OF SAFETY HELMETS 14 9 2 MECHANICAL BEHAVIOUR OF FOAMS 14 9 3 MECHANICAL TESTING OF SAFETY HELMETS