THE MANUFACTURE OF OPTICAL GLASS AND OF OPTICAL SYSTEMS: A WAR-TIME PROBLEM
CONTENTS ELECTRO-OPTICAL SYSTEM DESIGN INTRODUCTION THE PRINCIPLES OF SYSTEMS DESIGN DE?NITIONS THE DESIGN PROCESS PREREQUISITES FOR DESIGN PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT APPROACHES LIFECYCLE PHASES PARALLEL ACTIVITIES DURING DEVELOPMENT SPECI?CATIONS PERFORMANCE MEASURES AND ?GURES OF MERIT VALUE SYSTEMS AND DESIGN CHOICES 1 2 10 ASSUMPTIONS DURING DESIGN 1 2 11 THE DESIGN PROCESS REVISITED ELECTRO-OPTICAL SYSTEMS AND SYSTEM DESIGN DE?NITION OF AN ELECTRO-OPTICAL SYSTEM DESIGNING AT THE ELECTRO-OPTICAL-SYSTEM LEVEL ELECTRO-OPTICAL SYSTEMS MODELING AND SIMULATION CONCLUSION BIBLIOGRAPHY INTRODUCTION TO RADIOMETRY NOTATION RADIOMETRY NOMENCLATURE DE?NITION OF QUANTITIES NATURE OF RADIOMETRIC QUANTITIES SPECTRAL QUANTITIES MATERIAL PROPERTIES LINEAR ANGLE SOLID ANGLE GEOMETRIC AND PROJECTED SOLID ANGLE GEOMETRIC SOLID ANGLE OF A CONE PROJECTED SOLID ANGLE OF A CONE GEOMETRIC SOLID ANGLE OF A ?AT RECTANGULAR SURFACE PROJECTED SOLID ANGLE OF A ?AT RECTANGULAR SURFACE APPROXIMATION OF SOLID ANGLE PROJECTED AREA OF A SPHERE PROJECTED SOLID ANGLE OF A SPHERE RADIANCE AND FLUX TRANSFER CONSERVATION OF RADIANCE FLUX TRANSFER THROUGH A LOSSLESS MEDIUM FLUX TRANSFER THROUGH A LOSSY MEDIUM SOURCES AND RECEIVERS OF ARBITRARY SHAPE MULTI-SPECTRAL ?UX TRANSFER LAMBERTIAN RADIATORS AND THE PROJECTED SOLID ANGLE SPATIAL VIEW FACTOR OR CON?GURATION FACTOR SHAPE OF THE RADIATOR A DISK A SPHERE PHOTOMETRY AND COLOR 2 10 1 PHOTOMETRY UNITS 2 10 2 EYE SPECTRAL RESPONSE 2 10 3 CONVERSION TO PHOTOMETRIC UNITS 2 10 4 BRIEF INTRODUCTION TO COLOR COORDINATES 2 10 5 COLOR-COORDINATE SENSITIVITY TO SOURCE SPECTRUM PROBLEMS SOURCES PLANCK RADIATORS PLANCK’S RADIATION LAW WIEN’S DISPLACEMENT LAW STEFAN–BOLTZMANN LAW SUMMATION APPROXIMATION OF PLANCK’S LAW SUMMARY OF PLANCK’S LAW THERMAL RADIATION FROM COMMON OBJECTS EMISSIVITY KIRCHHOFF’S LAW FLUX TRANSFER BETWEEN A SOURCE AND RECEIVER GREY BODIES AND SELECTIVE RADIATORS RADIATION FROM LOW-EMISSIVITY SURFACES EMISSIVITY OF CAVITIES APERTURE PLATE IN FRONT OF A BLACKBODY DIRECTIONAL SURFACE RE?ECTANCE ROUGHNESS AND SCALE RE?ECTION GEOMETRY RE?ECTION FROM OPTICALLY SMOOTH SURFACES FRESNEL RE?ECTANCE BIDIRECTIONAL RE?ECTION DISTRIBUTION FUNCTION DIRECTIONAL EMISSIVITY DIRECTIONAL RE?ECTANCE AND EMISSIVITY IN NATURE THE SUN OPTICAL MEDIA OVERVIEW OPTICAL MEDIUMS LOSSY MEDIUMS PATH RADIANCE GENERAL LAW OF CONTRAST REDUCTION OPTICAL THICKNESS GAS RADIATOR SOURCES INHOMOGENEOUS MEDIA AND DISCRETE ORDINATES EFFECTIVE TRANSMITTANCE TRANSMITTANCE AS FUNCTION OF RANGE THE ATMOSPHERE AS MEDIUM ATMOSPHERIC COMPOSITION AND ATTENUATION ATMOSPHERIC MOLECULAR ABSORPTION ATMOSPHERIC AEROSOLS AND SCATTERING ATMOSPHERIC TRANSMITTANCE WINDOWS ATMOSPHERIC PATH RADIANCE PRACTICAL CONSEQUENCES OF PATH RADIANCE LOOKING UP AT AND LOOKING DOWN ON THE EARTH ATMOSPHERIC WATER-VAPOR CONTENT CONTRAST TRANSMITTANCE IN THE ATMOSPHERE 4 6 10 METEOROLOGICAL RANGE AND AEROSOL SCATTERING ATMOSPHERIC RADIATIVE TRANSFER CODES MODTRAN™ OPTICAL DETECTORS HISTORICAL OVERVIEW OVERVIEW OF THE DETECTION PROCESS THERMAL DETECTORS PHOTON DETECTORS NORMALIZING RESPONSIVITY DETECTOR CON?GURATIONS NOISE NOISE POWER SPECTRAL DENSITY JOHNSON NOISE SHOT NOISE GENERATION–RECOMBINATION NOISE 1/ F NOISE TEMPERATURE-?UCTUATION NOISE INTERFACE ELECTRONICS NOISE NOISE CONSIDERATIONS IN IMAGING SYSTEMS SIGNAL ?UX ?UCTUATION NOISE 5 3 10 BACKGROUND ?UX ?UCTUATION NOISE 5 3 11 DETECTOR NOISE EQUIVALENT POWER AND DETECTIVITY 5 3 12 COMBINING POWER SPECTRAL DENSITIES 5 3 13 NOISE EQUIVALENT BANDWIDTH 5 3 14 TIME-BANDWIDTH PRODUCT THERMAL DETECTORS PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION THERMAL DETECTOR RESPONSIVITY RESISTIVE BOLOMETER PYROELECTRIC DETECTOR THERMOELECTRIC DETECTOR PHOTON-NOISE-LIMITED OPERATION TEMPERATURE-?UCTUATION-NOISE-LIMITED OPERATION PROPERTIES OF CRYSTALLINE MATERIALS CRYSTALLINE STRUCTURE OCCUPATION OF ELECTRONS IN ENERGY BANDS ELECTRON DENSITY IN ENERGY BANDS SEMICONDUCTOR BAND STRUCTURE CONDUCTORS, SEMICONDUCTORS, AND INSULATORS INTRINSIC AND EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR MATERIALS PHOTON-ELECTRON INTERACTIONS LIGHT ABSORPTION IN SEMICONDUCTORS PHYSICAL PARAMETERS FOR IMPORTANT SEMICONDUCTORS OVERVIEW OF THE PHOTON DETECTION PROCESS PHOTON DETECTOR OPERATION CARRIERS AND CURRENT ?OW IN SEMICONDUCTOR MATERIAL PHOTON ABSORPTION AND MAJORITY/MINORITY CARRIERS QUANTUM EF?CIENCY DETECTOR COOLING PHOTOCONDUCTIVE DETECTORS PHOTOCONDUCTIVE DETECTOR SIGNAL BIAS CIRCUITS FOR PHOTOCONDUCTIVE DETECTORS FREQUENCY RESPONSE OF PHOTOCONDUCTIVE DETECTORS NOISE IN PHOTOCONDUCTIVE DETECTORS PHOTOVOLTAIC DETECTORS PHOTOVOLTAIC DETECTOR OPERATION DIODE CURRENT–VOLTAGE RELATIONSHIP BIAS CON?GURATIONS FOR PHOTOVOLTAIC DETECTORS FREQUENCY RESPONSE OF A PHOTOVOLTAIC DETECTOR NOISE IN PHOTOVOLTAIC DETECTORS DETECTOR PERFORMANCE MODELING IMPACT OF DETECTOR TECHNOLOGY ON INFRARED SYSTEMS SENSORS ANATOMY OF A SENSOR INTRODUCTION TO OPTICS OPTICAL ELEMENTS FIRST-ORDER RAY TRACING PUPILS, APERTURES, STOPS, AND F-NUMBER OPTICAL SENSOR SPATIAL ANGLES EXTENDED AND POINT TARGET OBJECTS OPTICAL ABERRATIONS OPTICAL POINT SPREAD FUNCTION OPTICAL SYSTEMS ASPHERIC LENSES 6 3 10 RADIOMETRY OF A COLLIMATOR SPECTRAL FILTERS A SIMPLE SENSOR MODEL SENSOR SIGNAL CALCULATIONS DETECTOR SIGNAL SOURCE AREA VARIATIONS COMPLEX SOURCES SIGNAL NOISE REFERENCE PLANES SENSOR OPTICAL THROUGHPUT RADIOMETRY TECHNIQUES PERFORMANCE MEASURES ROLE OF PERFORMANCE MEASURES GENERAL DE?NITIONS COMMONLY USED PERFORMANCE MEASURES NORMALIZATION SOLID ANGLE SPATIAL NORMALIZATION EFFECTIVE VALUE NORMALIZATION PEAK NORMALIZATION WEIGHTED MAPPING SPECTRAL MISMATCH SPECTRAL CONVOLUTION THE RANGE EQUATION PIXEL IRRADIANCE IN AN IMAGE DIFFERENCE CONTRAST PULSE DETECTION AND FALSE ALARM RATE VALIDATION TECHNIQUES OPTICAL SIGNATURES MODEL FOR OPTICAL SIGNATURES GENERAL NOTES ON SIGNATURES RE?ECTION SIGNATURES MODELING THERMAL RADIATORS EMISSIVITY ESTIMATION AREA ESTIMATION TEMPERATURE ESTIMATION MEASUREMENT DATA ANALYSIS CASE STUDY: HIGH-TEMPERATURE FLAME MEASUREMENT CASE STUDY: LOW-EMISSIVITY SURFACE MEASUREMENT CASE STUDY: CLOUD MODELING MEASUREMENTS MODEL RELATIVE CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE CLOUD SIGNATURE CASE STUDY: CONTRAST INVERSION/TEMPERATURE CROSS-OVER CASE STUDY: THERMALLY TRANSPARENT PAINTS CASE STUDY: SUN-GLINT ELECTRO-OPTICAL SYSTEM ANALYSIS CASE STUDY: FLAME SENSOR CASE STUDY: OBJECT APPEARANCE IN AN IMAGE CASE STUDY: SOLAR CELL ANALYSIS OBSERVATIONS ANALYSIS CASE STUDY: LASER RANGE?NDER RANGE EQUATION NOISE EQUIVALENT IRRADIANCE SIGNAL IRRADIANCE LAMBERTIAN TARGET RE?ECTANCE LAMBERTIAN TARGETS AGAINST THE SKY LAMBERTIAN TARGETS AGAINST TERRAIN DETECTION RANGE EXAMPLE CALCULATION SPECULAR RE?ECTIVE SURFACES CASE STUDY: THERMAL IMAGING SENSOR MODEL ELECTRONIC PARAMETERS NOISE EXPRESSED AS D? NOISE IN THE ENTRANCE APERTURE NOISE IN THE OBJECT PLANE CASE STUDY: ATMOSPHERE AND THERMAL CAMERA SENSITIVITY CASE STUDY: INFRARED SENSOR RADIOMETRY FLUX ON THE DETECTOR FOCUSED OPTICS OUT-OF-FOCUS OPTICS CASE STUDY: BUNSEN BURNER FLAME CHARACTERIZATION DATA ANALYSIS WORK?OW INSTRUMENT CALIBRATION IMAGING-CAMERA RADIANCE RESULTS IMAGING-CAMERA ?AME-AREA RESULTS FLAME DYNAMICS THERMOCOUPLE ?AME TEMPERATURE RESULTS 10 GOLDEN RULES BEST PRACTICES IN RADIOMETRIC CALCULATION START FROM FIRST PRINCIPLES UNDERSTAND RADIANCE, AREA, AND SOLID ANGLE BUILD MATHEMATICAL MODELS WORK IN BASE SI UNITS PERFORM DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS DRAW PICTURES UNDERSTAND THE ROLE OF ? SIMPLIFY SPATIAL INTEGRALS 10 10 GRAPHICALLY PLOT INTERMEDIATE RESULTS 10 11 FOLLOW PROPER CODING PRACTICES 10 12 VERIFY AND VALIDATE 10 13 DO IT RIGHT — THE FIRST TIME!