THERMO-MECHANICAL PROCESSING OF METALLIC MATERIALS
CONTENTS PART I: SCIENCE CHAPTER GENERAL INTRODUCTION CHAPTER MICROSTRUCTURE AND PROPERTIES 2 1 INTRODUCTION 2 2 MICROSTRUCTURE SOLIDIFICATION INTERFACES 2 3 PROPERTIES PHYSICAL PROPERTIES CHEMICAL PROPERTIES MECHANICAL PROPERTIES ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES MAGNETIC PROPERTIES THERMAL PROPERTIES LITERATURE PLASTICITY 3 1 INTRODUCTION 3 2 FUNDAMENTALS FLOW STRESSES AND STRAINS GENERALIZED STRESSES AND STRAINS YIELD CRITERIA 3 3 STRESS–STRAIN RELATIONS 3 4 PLASTIC ANISOTROPY 3 5 FRACTURE FAILURE MECHANISMS WORK HARDENING 4 1 INTRODUCTION 4 2 ‘LOW’ TEMPERATURE BASIC MICROSCOPIC MECHANISMS INFLUENCE OF ALLOYING ELEMENTS MICROSCOPIC HARDENING LAWS 4 3 HOT DEFORMATION FLOW STRESSES HOT DEFORMATION MICROSTRUCTURES SOFTENING MECHANISMS 5 1 INTRODUCTION 5 2 RECOVERY RECOVERY MECHANISMS RECOVERY KINETICS STRUCTURAL CHANGES DURING RECOVERY EXTENDED RECOVERY/CONTINUOUS RECRYSTALLIZATION 5 3 RECRYSTALLIZATION SOURCES OF RECRYSTALLIZED GRAINS RECRYSTALLIZATION MECHANISMS RECRYSTALLIZATION KINETICS ROLE OF SECOND PHASE DYNAMIC RECRYSTALLIZATION 5 4 GRAIN COARSENING THEORIES OF GRAIN COARSENING FACTORS AFFECTING GRAIN GROWTH ALTERNATIVE DEFORMATION MECHANISMS 6 1 INTRODUCTION 6 2 DEFORMATION MECHANISM MAPS CONTENTS 6 3 CREEP THE CREEP CURVE CREEP MECHANISMS INFLUENCE OF THE MICROSTRUCTURE 6 4 GRAIN BOUNDARY SLIDING GBS AND SUPERPLASTICITY CONDITIONS FOR SUPERPLASTICITY 6 5 TWINNING INTRODUCTION TWINNING MECHANISM INFLUENCE OF SOME PARAMETERS ON TWINNING TWINNING AND DEFORMATION PHASE TRANSFORMATIONS 7 1 INTRODUCTION 7 2 THE THERMODYNAMIC BASICS 7 3 NUCLEATION AND GROWTH-TYPE TRANSFORMATION NUCLEATION GROWTH KINETICS FORMATION OF METASTABLE PHASES INVARIANT PLANE STRAIN TRANSFORMATION SELECTED EXAMPLES ON DIFFERENT MECHANISMS AND/OR STRUCTURES 7 4 SPINODAL DECOMPOSITION TEXTURAL DEVELOPMENTS DURING THERMO-MECHANICAL PROCESSING 8 1 INTRODUCTION 8 2 GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION OF TEXTURE DATA GRAIN ORIENTATION POLE FIGURES INVERSE POLE FIGURES ORIENTATION DISTRIBUTION FUNCTIONS 8 3 SOME IMPORTANT COLD DEFORMATION TEXTURES AXISYMMETRIC DEFORMATION PLANE STRAIN DEFORMATION OF FCC MATERIALS PLANE STRAIN DEFORMATION OF BCC MATERIALS PLANE STRAIN DEFORMATION OF HEXAGONAL MATERIALS 8 4 RECRYSTALLIZATION TEXTURES ORIENTED NUCLEATION OR ORIENTED GROWTH: HALF A CENTURY OF DISCUSSIONS SOME IMPORTANT RECRYSTALLIZATION TEXTURES IN ROLLED FCC METALS SOME IMPORTANT RECRYSTALLIZATION TEXTURES IN ROLLED BCC METALS 8 5 TEXTURES IN HOT DEFORMED MATERIALS HOT DEFORMATION TEXTURES IN AL ALLOYS TRANSFORMATION TEXTURES IN STEEL RESIDUAL STRESS 9 1 INTRODUCTION 9 2 TYPES OF RESIDUAL STRESS 9 3 CONTINUUM APPROACH TO RESIDUAL STRESS 9 4 ORIGIN OF RESIDUAL STRESS 9 5 RESIDUAL STRESS MEASUREMENTS 9 6 MICRO-STRESS ANALYSIS – A TOOL FOR ESTIMATING DISLOCATION DENSITIES 9 7 RESIDUAL STRESS AND CRYSTALLOGRAPHIC TEXTURE MODELLING 10 1 INTRODUCTION 10 2 DEFORMATION TEXTURES PRINCIPLES OF DEFORMATION TEXTURE FORMATION SIMULATED DEFORMATION TEXTURES 10 3 RECOVERY AND RECRYSTALLIZATION GENERAL TRANSFORMATION KINETICS RECRYSTALLIZATION PART II: TECHNOLOGY CHAPTER FORMING TECHNIQUES 11 1 GENERAL INTRODUCTION FRICTION AND LUBRICATION TMP FURNACES 11 2 ROLLING ROLLING EQUIPMENT MECHANICS TYPICAL ROLLING SCHEDULES 11 3 EXTRUSION DEFORMATION CONDITIONS STEELS AND HIGH MELTING TEMPERATURE ALLOYS ALUMINIUM ALLOYS 11 4 WIRE DRAWING WIRE DRAWING MACHINES WIRE DRAWING DIES THE DRAWING FORCE SOME IMPORTANT METALLURGICAL FACTORS DRAWING OF METAL FIBRES 11 5 FORGING FORGING EQUIPMENT FORGING DIES FRICTION AND LUBRICATION IN FORGING FORGING OPTIMIZATION FORGABILITY CONTENTS 11 6 PILGERING PILGERING EQUIPMENT AND PROCESS OPTIMIZATION IN PILGERING MATERIALS ASPECTS 11 7 SHEET METAL FORMING PLASTIC ANISOTROPY FORMING LIMIT DIAGRAMS STRETCH FORMING DEEP DRAWING BENDING AND FOLDING OTHER TECHNIQUES 11 8 HYDROFORMING SHEET HYDROFORMING TUBE HYDROFORMING IMPORTANT PARAMETERS 11 9 HIPPING DENSIFICATION MECHANISMS HIPPING EQUIPMENT TYPICAL APPLICATIONS 11 10 SUPERPLASTIC FORMING TECHNOLOGY THINNING CAVITATION DEFECTS IN THERMO-MECHANICAL PROCESSING 12 1 INTRODUCTION 12 2 FORM DEFECTS 12 3 SURFACE DEFECTS DEFORMATION OR FORMING PROCESS-INDUCED SURFACE DEFECTS ENVIRONMENT-INDUCED SURFACE DEFECTS SURFACE DEFECTS RELATED TO COATING 12 4 FRACTURE-RELATED DEFECTS EDGE CRACKING ALLIGATORING CENTRAL BURST WIRE-DRAWING SPLIT 12 5 STRAIN LOCALIZATIONS 12 6 STRUCTURAL DEFECTS PHYSICAL SIMULATION OF PROPERTIES 13 1 INTRODUCTION 13 2 TENSILE TESTING 13 3 HOT TORSION TESTS 13 4 COMPRESSION TESTS UNIAXIAL COMPRESSION PLANE STRAIN COMPRESSION 13 5 MIXED STRAIN PATH TESTS LAB-SCALE TESTS DOWNGRADING OF INDUSTRIAL PROCESSES 13 6 TYPICAL SHEET FORMABILITY TESTS BENDING PART III: CASE STUDIES CHAPTER THERMO-MECHANICAL PROCESSING OF ALUMINIUM ALLOYS 14 1 ALUMINIUM BEVERAGE CANS THE PRODUCTION OF A BEVERAGE CAN THE PRODUCTION OF CAN BODY SHEET RECYCLING AN ALTERNATIVE MATERIAL: STEEL 14 2 ALUMINIUM SHEETS FOR CAPACITOR FOILS CAPACITOR REQUIREMENTS THE PROCESS CUBE TEXTURE CONTROL MECHANISMS CONTENTS 14 3 ALUMINIUM MATRIX COMPOSITES PROCESSING HOT EXTRUSION 14 4 THICK PLATES FOR AEROSPACE APPLICATIONS INTEGRAL STRUCTURES METALLURGICAL IMPROVEMENTS THROUGH TMP ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS THERMO-MECHANICAL PROCESSING OF STEEL 15 1 STEEL FOR CAR BODY APPLICATIONS BATCH ANNEALED AL-KILLED LOW-CARBON STEEL CONTINUOUS ANNEALED LOW-CARBON STEEL INTERSTITIAL-FREE STEELS TREND TOWARDS HIGHER STRENGTH STEELS 15 2 DUAL PHASE AND TRIP STEELS DUAL PHASE STEEL TRIP STEEL 15 3 CONTROLLED ROLLING OF HSLA STEELS: PIPELINE APPLICATIONS CONTROLLED ROLLING HSLA STEEL FOR PIPELINES 15 4 ELECTRICAL STEELS A FEW RELEVANT BASICS ON MAGNETISM ROLE OF CHEMISTRY ROLE OF CRYSTALLOGRAPHIC TEXTURE, STRESS AND GRAIN SIZE NON-ORIENTED ELECTRICAL STEELS (CRNO) GRAIN-ORIENTED ELECTRICAL STEELS 15 5 PATENTED STEEL WIRES – FROM BRIDGES TO RADIAL TYRES THE PATENTING PROCESS THE MECHANICAL PROPERTIES CONTENTS CHAPTER THERMO-MECHANICAL PROCESSING OF HEXAGONAL ALLOYS 16 1 ZIRCONIUM ALLOYS FOR NUCLEAR INDUSTRY ZIRCONIUM AND ITS ALLOYS STRUCTURE–PROPERTY CORRELATION IN ZR ALLOYS TMP OF ZIRCONIUM COMPONENTS 16 2 TITANIUM FORGINGS IN THE AEROSPACE INDUSTRY SOME PHYSICAL METALLURGY OF TI ALLOYS HOT WORKING CONDITIONS GENERAL / ALLOYS NEAR- ALLOYS AND NEAR- ALLOYS NEW TECHNOLOGIES 17 1 SUBMICRON MATERIALS BY SEVERE PLASTIC DEFORMATION GEOMETRICAL DYNAMIC RECRYSTALLIZATION SEVERE PLASTIC DEFORMATION PROPERTIES OF SUBMICRON MATERIALS OBTAINED BY SPD 17 2 GRAIN BOUNDARY ENGINEERING FOR LOCAL CORROSION RESISTANCE IN AUSTENITIC STAINLESS STEEL SENSITIZATION CONTROL ABILITY TO ALTER GRAIN BOUNDARY NATURE SENSITIZATION AND GRAIN BOUNDARY NATURE REFERENCES