THE MANUAL OF PHOTOGRAPHY
CONTENTS 1 INTRODUCTION TO THE IMAGING PROCESS INTRODUCTION THE IMAGING PROCESS IMAGE CONTROL CONTROL OF IMAGE SHAPE DEPTH OF ?ELD TONE AND CONTRAST COLOUR THE ORIGINS OF PHOTOGRAPHY CAMERA OBSCURA EARLY EXPERIMENTS TOWARDS THE DEVELOPMENT PROCESS E THE DAGUERREOTYPE THE NEGATIVEEPOSITIVE PROCESS MODERN MATERIALS PHOTOGRAPHIC IMAGING TODAY CHARACTERISTICS OF PHOTOGRAPHIC MATERIALS CAPTURING COLOUR DIGITAL IMAGING EARLY DIGITAL IMAGES THE CMOS SENSOR COLOUR DIGITAL CAPTURE OTHER DIGITAL DEVICES DIGITAL IMAGE REPRESENTATION SPATIAL RESOLUTION BIT DEPTH COLOUR REPRESENTATION FILE SIZE AND ?LE FORMATS IMAGING CHAINS EVALUATING IMAGE QUALITY BIBLIOGRAPHY 2 LIGHT THEORY A BRIEF HISTORY OF LIGHT THEORY WAVEEPARTICLE DUALITY THE NATURE OF LIGHT RADIOMETRY AND PHOTOMETRY RADIOMETRIC DE?NITIONS PHOTOMETRIC DE?NITIONS OPTICS WAVE THEORY SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION PRINCIPLE OF SUPERPOSITION PLANE WAVES LIGHT INTENSITY REFRACTION AND DISPERSION POLARIZATION INTERFERENCE DIFFRACTION DIFFRACTION OF A CIRCULAR APERTURE AND A SINGLE SLIT RAYLEIGH CRITERION THE ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM BLACK-BODY RADIATION WIEN’S DISPLACEMENT LAW PLANCK’S LAW THE PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT THE PHOTON BOHR MODEL OF THE ATOM THE EMISSION OF ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION IN ATOMS 3 PHOTOGRAPHIC LIGHT SOURCES CHARACTERISTICS OF LIGHT SOURCES SPECTRAL QUALITY SPECTRAL POWER DISTRIBUTION CURVE COLOUR TEMPERATURE COLOUR RENDERING PERCENTAGE CONTENT OF PRIMARY HUES MEASUREMENT AND CONTROL OF COLOUR TEMPERATURE THE MIRED SCALE LIGHT OUTPUT UNITS ILLUMINATION LAWS RE?ECTORS AND LUMINAIRES CONSTANCY OF OUTPUT EF?CIENCY DAYLIGHT TUNGSTEN ?LAMENT LAMPS TUNGSTENEHALOGEN LAMPS FLUORESCENT LAMPS METAL-HALIDE LAMPS PULSED XENON LAMPS EXPENDABLE ?ASHBULBS ELECTRONIC ?ASH FLASH CIRCUITRY FLASH OUTPUT AND POWER FLASH DURATION AND EXPOSURE PORTABLE UNITS STUDIO ?ASH AUTOMATIC ?ASH EXPOSURE INTEGRAL ?ASH UNITS RED-EYE AVOIDANCE OTHER SOURCES LIGHT-EMITTING DIODES DIODE LASERS 4 THE HUMAN VISUAL SYSTEM THE PHYSICAL STRUCTURE OF THE HUMAN EYE TUNICS CORNEA CONJUNCTIVA IRIS AND PUPIL CRYSTALLINE LENS CILIARY BODY VITREOUS CAVITY AND VITREOUS HUMOUR RETINA AND CHOROID OPTIC NERVE STRUCTURE OF THE RETINA RODS AND CONES ‘NON-IMAGING’ CELL LAYERS RECEPTIVE ?ELDS DARK ADAPTATION ELEMENTARY COLOUR VISION YOUNGEHELMHOLTZ THEORY OF COLOUR VISION OPPONENT THEORY OF COLOUR VISION COLOUR ANOMALOUS VISION MOVEMENT AND FOCUSING FOCUSING AND CORRECTION OF EYESIGHT MOVEMENT THE VISUAL PATHWAY VISUAL CORTEX BINOCULAR VISION PERFORMANCE OF THE EYE LUMINANCE DISCRIMINATION CONTRAST SENSITIVITY FUNCTION VISUAL ACUITY ANIMAL VISION 5 INTRODUCTION TO COLOUR SCIENCE THE PHYSICS OF COLOUR COLOUR TERMINOLOGY THE COLOUR OF OBJECTS SPECTRAL ABSORPTANCE, RE?ECTANCE AND TRANSMITTANCE CIE STANDARD ILLUMINATING AND VIEWING GEOMETRIES CIE STANDARD ILLUMINANTS AND SOURCES MODELS OF COLOUR VISION THE BASICS OF COLORIMETRY COLOUR MATCHING FUNCTIONS AND THE CIE STANDARD OBSERVERS CALCULATING TRISTIMULUS VALUES FROM SPECTRAL DATA CHROMATICITY DIAGRAMS CIE UNIFORM COLOUR SPACES AND COLOUR DIFFERENCES METAMERISM AND TYPES OF METAMERIC MATCHES THE APPEARANCE OF COLOURS VISUAL ADAPTATION AND RELATED MECHANISMS OTHER COLOUR APPEARANCE PHENOMENA AN INTRODUCTION TO CATS AND CAMS A GENERALIZED CAT COLOUR APPEARANCE MODELS (CAMS) COLOUR REPRODUCTION OBJECTIVES OF COLOUR REPRODUCTION INSTRUMENTS USED IN COLOUR MEASUREMENT VIEWING CONDITIONS 6 PHOTOGRAPHIC AND GEOMETRICAL OPTICS PHOTOGRAPHIC OPTICS OPTICAL MATERIALS RE?ECTION REFRACTION TRANSMISSION DISPERSION GEOMETRICAL OPTICS SIMPLE LENS CARDINAL PLANES FOCAL LENGTH CONTENTS IMAGE MAGNI?CATION MIRRORS OPTICAL CALCULATIONS PARAMETERS EQUATIONS FOCUSING MOVEMENTS DEPTH OF ?ELD AND DEPTH OF FOCUS THE PHOTOMETRY OF IMAGE FORMATION STOPS AND PUPILS APERTURE IMAGE LUMINANCE AND ILLUMINATION IMAGE ILLUMINANCE EXPOSURE COMPENSATION FOR CLOSE-UP PHOTOGRAPHY LENS ?ARE T-NUMBERS ANTI-RE?ECTION COATINGS TYPES OF COATING 7 IMAGES AND IMAGE FORMATION SINUSOIDAL WAVES MODULATION IMAGES AND SINE WAVES IMAGING SINUSOIDAL PATTERNS FOURIER THEORY OF IMAGE FORMATION LINEAR, SPATIALLY INVARIANT SYSTEMS SPREAD FUNCTIONS THE POINT SPREAD FUNCTION (PSF) THE LINE SPREAD FUNCTION (LSF) THE EDGE SPREAD FUNCTION (ESF) THE IMAGING EQUATION (FROM INPUT TO OUTPUT) THE IMAGING EQUATION IN ONE DIMENSION THE MODULATION TRANSFER FUNCTION (MTF) SPECIAL FOURIER TRANSFORM PAIRS THE RECTANGULAR FUNCTION THE DIRAC DELTA FUNCTION PROPERTIES OF D(X) IMPORTANCE OF D(X) THE GAUSSIAN FUNCTION THE MODULATION TRANSFER FUNCTION REVISITED CASCADING OF MTFS CONVOLUTION REVISITED A GEOMETRIC INTERPRETATION OF CONVOLUTION THE CONVOLUTION THEOREM DISCRETE TRANSFORMS AND SAMPLING UNDERSAMPLING A COSINE WAVE THE DIRAC COMB (THE SAMPLING FUNCTION) THE PROCESS OF SAMPLING THE MTF FOR A CCD IMAGING ARRAY 8 SENSITOMETRY THE SUBJECT EXPOSURE DENSITY AND OTHER RELEVANT MEASURES TRANSMITTANCE OPACITY DENSITY EFFECT OF LIGHT SCATTER IN A NEGATIVE CALLIER COEF?CIENT DENSITY IN PRACTICE THE CHARACTERISTIC (H AND D) CURVE MAIN REGIONS OF THE NEGATIVE CHARACTERISTIC CURVE VARIATION OF THE CHARACTERISTIC CURVE WITH THE MATERIAL GAMMAETIME CURVE VARIATION OF GAMMA WITH WAVELENGTH PLACING THE SUBJECT ON THE CHARACTERISTIC CURVE EFFECT OF VARIATION OF EXPOSURE OF THE NEGATIVE AVERAGE GRADIENT AND G CONTRAST INDEX EFFECT OF VARIATION IN DEVELOPMENT ON THE NEGATIVE EXPOSURE LATITUDE THE RESPONSE CURVE OF A PHOTOGRAPHIC PAPER MAXIMUM BLACK EXPOSURE RANGE OF A PAPER VARIATION OF THE PRINT CHARACTERISTIC CURVE WITH THE TYPE OF EMULSION VARIATION OF THE PRINT CHARACTERISTIC CURVE WITH DEVELOPMENT REQUIREMENTS IN A PRINT PAPER CONTRAST RECIPROCITY LAW FAILURE PRACTICAL EFFECTS OF RECIPROCITY FAILURE INTERMITTENCY EFFECT SENSITOMETERS DENSITOMETERS MICRODENSITOMETERS COLOUR DENSITOMETERS 9 IMAGE SENSORS MATERIALS AND DETECTION OF LIGHT CONDUCTORS, INSULATORS AND SEMICONDUCTORS DOPING PHOTOEMISSION AND PHOTOABSORPTION DIODES TRANSISTORS CONTENTS CCD AND CMOS SENSORS MOS CAPACITOR PHOTODIODES PIXELS CCD AND CMOS IMAGE READOUT CCD READOUT CMOS READOUT AMPLI?CATION AND ANALOGUE-TO-DIGITAL CONVERSION SCANNING METHODS IMAGING PERFORMANCE PERFORMANCE TRADE-OFFS MICROLENS ARRAYS SENSITIVITY EXPOSURE CONTROL SENSOR IMPERFECTIONS GENERATING COLOUR 10 CAMERA LENSES LENS ABERRATIONS AXIAL CHROMATIC ABERRATION LATERAL CHROMATIC ABERRATION SPHERICAL ABERRATION COMA CURVATURE OF ?ELD ASTIGMATISM CURVILINEAR DISTORTION LENS APERTURE AND PERFORMANCE PHOTOGRAPHIC LENSES PHOTOGRAPHIC LENS TYPES SIMPLE LENSES COMPOUND LENSES DEVELOPMENT OF THE PHOTOGRAPHIC LENS SIMPLE LENSES AND ACHROMATS THE PETZVAL LENS SYMMETRICAL DOUBLETS ANASTIGMATS TRIPLETS DOUBLE-GAUSS LENSES MODERN CAMERA LENSES WIDE-ANGLE LENSES SYMMETRICAL-DERIVATIVE LENSES RETROFOCUS LENSES FISH-EYE LENSES LONG-FOCUS LENSES LONG-FOCUS DESIGNS TELEPHOTO LENSES CATADIOPTRIC LENSES (‘MIRROR LENSES’) ZOOM AND VARIFOCAL LENSES ZOOM LENSES ZOOM LENSES FOR COMPACT AND DIGITAL CAMERAS MACRO LENSES OPTICAL ATTACHMENTS AFOCAL CONVERTER LENSES CLOSE-UP (SUPPLEMENTARY) LENSES OTHER ATTACHMENTS TELECONVERTERS OPTICAL ?LTERS ABSORPTION ?LTERS UV AND IR ?LTERS NEUTRAL-DENSITY ?LTERS POLARIZING ?LTERS 11 PHOTOGRAPHIC CAMERA SYSTEMS IMAGE FORMAT CAMERA TYPES SIMPLE CAMERAS COMPACT CAMERAS RANGE?NDER CAMERAS TWIN-LENS RE?EX (TLR) CAMERAS SINGLE-LENS RE?EX (SLR) CAMERAS TECHNICAL CAMERAS SPECIAL-PURPOSE CAMERAS CAMERAS FOR SELF-DEVELOPING MATERIALS AERIAL CAMERAS UNDERWATER CAMERAS ULTRAWIDE-ANGLE CAMERAS PANORAMIC CAMERAS AUTOMATIC CAMERAS ANALOGUE SYSTEMS DIGITAL CONTROL CAMERA FEATURES SHUTTER SYSTEMS FLASH SYNCHRONIZATION THE IRIS DIAPHRAGM VIEW?NDER SYSTEMS FOCUSING SYSTEMS AUTOFOCUS SYSTEMS EXPOSURE METERING SYSTEMS AUTOMATIC EXPOSURE PROGRAMMED EXPOSURE MODES SEGMENTED PHOTOCELL SYSTEMS BATTERY POWER CAMERA SHAKE AND IMAGE STABILIZATION CAMERA MOVEMENTS 12 EXPOSURE AND IMAGE CONTROL CAMERA EXPOSURE EXPOSURE RELATIONSHIPS AND LOGARITHMS RELATIVE APERTURE SHUTTER SPEED SUBJECT LUMINANCE RATIO DYNAMIC RANGE OF SENSORS CONTENTS OPTIMUM EXPOSURE AND THE TRANSFER FUNCTION EXPOSURE METERS HAND-HELD EXPOSURE METERS ACCEPTANCE ANGLE EXPOSURE VALUES EXPOSURE FACTORS TYPES OF LIGHT MEASUREMENT INCIDENT LIGHT MEASUREMENT RE?ECTED LIGHT MEASUREMENT IN-CAMERA METERING MODES SPOT METERING PARTIAL AREA METERING CENTRE-WEIGHTED AVERAGE METERING MATRIX OR MULTI-ZONE METERING ELECTRONIC ?ASH EXPOSURE GUIDE NUMBERS RE?ECTED LIGHT MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES MEASUREMENT OF TOTAL SCENE LUMINANCE MEASURING A MIDDLE GREY SURFACE (KEY TONE) MEASUREMENT OF LUMINANCE OF THE DARKEST SHADOW MEASUREMENT OF LUMINANCE OF THE LIGHTEST HIGHLIGHT AVERAGING VALUES EXPOSURE TECHNIQUES AND DIGITAL CAMERAS USING THE IMAGE HISTOGRAM ‘EXPOSING TO THE RIGHT’ THE ZONE SYSTEM THE ZONES THE ZONE SYSTEM AND DIGITAL CAMERAS HIGH-DYNAMIC-RANGE (HDR) IMAGING 13 IMAGE FORMATION AND THE PHOTOGRAPHIC PROCESS SILVER HALIDES LATENT IMAGE FORMATION SPECTRAL SENSITIVITY OF PHOTOGRAPHIC MATERIALS RESPONSE OF PHOTOGRAPHIC MATERIALS TO SHORT-WAVE RADIATION RESPONSE OF PHOTOGRAPHIC MATERIALS TO VISIBLE RADIATION SPECTRAL SENSITIZATION ORTHOCHROMATIC MATERIALS PANCHROMATIC MATERIALS EXTENDED SENSITIVITY MATERIALS INFRARED MATERIALS OTHER USES OF DYE SENSITIZATION STRUCTURE OF PHOTOGRAPHIC MATERIALS PRODUCTION OF LIGHT-SENSITIVE MATERIALS AND SENSORS THE SUPPORT COATING THE PHOTOGRAPHIC EMULSION SIZES AND FORMATS OF PHOTOGRAPHIC MATERIALS SPEED OF PHOTOGRAPHIC MATERIALS SPEED SYSTEMS AND STANDARDS GRAININESS AND GRANULARITY CONTRAST SHARPNESS AND ACUTANCE CHEMISTRY OF THE PHOTOGRAPHIC PROCESS DEVELOPERS AND DEVELOPMENT COMPOSITION OF A DEVELOPING SOLUTION DEVELOPING AGENTS PRESERVATIVES ALKALIS RESTRAINERS (ANTI-FOGGANTS) MISCELLANEOUS ADDITIONS TO DEVELOPERS SUPERADDITIVITY (SYNERGESIS) DEVELOPMENT TIME PRINTING DARKROOM WORK DEVELOPMENT 14 DIGITAL CAMERAS AND SCANNERS DIGITAL STILL CAMERAS DIGITAL STILL CAMERA ARCHITECTURE IMAGING OPTICS IMAGE SENSOR DYNAMIC RANGE IN DIGITAL CAMERAS COLOUR CAPTURE THREE-SENSOR CAMERAS SEQUENTIAL COLOUR CAMERAS COLOUR ?LTER ARRAY (CFA) CAMERAS THE SUPER CCD THE FOVEON SENSOR RENDERED VERSUS UNRENDERED CAMERA PROCESSING EXPOSURE DETERMINATION AND AUTO-EXPOSURE AUTOFOCUS CONTROL ANALOGUE PROCESSING DIGITAL PROCESSING COLOUR DEMOSAICING SETTING WHITE BALANCE DIGITAL ZOOM, RESIZING AND CROPPING NOISE REDUCTION SHARPENING CONTENTS TONE/COLOUR RENDERING COMPACT DIGITAL CAMERAS BRIDGE DIGITAL CAMERAS DIGITAL SINGLE-LENS RE?EX (DSLR) CAMERAS DIGITAL CAMERAS AND CAMERA BACKS FOR MEDIUM AND LARGE FORMAT SPECIALIST DIGITAL CAMERAS IMAGE SCANNERS TYPES OF SCANNERS DRUM SCANNERS FLATBED SCANNERS FILM SCANNERS FLEXTIGHT SCANNERS MULTI-SPECTRAL SCANNERS SCANNER CHARACTERISTICS SAMPLING AND RESOLUTION DYNAMIC RANGE SCANNING SPEED IMAGE TRANSFER SCANNER DRIVERS 15 DISPLAYS IMAGE DISPLAY CATHODE RAY TUBE (CRT) DISPLAYS LIQUID CRYSTAL DISPLAYS (LCDS) OTHER DISPLAY TECHNOLOGIES PLASMA DISPLAY PANELS (PDPS) ORGANIC LIGHT-EMITTING DISPLAYS (OLEDS) FLEXIBLE DISPLAYS CHARACTERISTICS OF DISPLAYS REFRESH RATE AND RESPONSE TIME RESOLUTION LUMINANCE CONTRAST RATIO VIEWING ANGLE DISPLAY ARTEFACTS EFFECT OF VIEWING CONDITIONS 16 DIGITAL PRINTING AND MATERIALS PRINTING TECHNOLOGIES INKJET PRINTERS ELECTROPHOTOGRAPHIC PRINTERS THERMOGRAPHY PICTROGRAPHY PRINTING MEDIA AND THEIR PROPERTIES PAPER FOR INKJET PRINTING INKS FOR INKJET PRINTING TONER MATERIALS COLOUR, RESOLUTION AND OUTPUT HALF-TONING AND DITHERING PRINTING PRESS RELIEF PRINTING PLANOGRAPHIC PRINTING (OR LITHOGRAPHY) RECESS PRINTING THROUGH PRINTING 17 DIGITAL IMAGE ?LE FORMATS RASTER AND VECTOR GRAPHICS BIT-DEPTH SUPPORT AND COLOUR ENCODING COMPRESSION METHODS STANDARDIZATION OF THE FORMAT METADATA AND EXIF COLOUR MANAGEMENT ADDITIONAL FEATURES TAGGED IMAGE ?LE FORMAT (TIFF) TIFF/EP TIFF/IT JOINT PHOTOGRAPHIC EXPERTS GROUP (JPEG) JOINT PHOTOGRAPHIC EXPERTS GROUP (JPEG 2000) RAW DIGITAL NEGATIVE (DNG) GRAPHICS INTERCHANGE FORMAT (GIF) PORTABLE NETWORK GRAPHICS (PNG) PHOTOSHOP DOCUMENT (PSD) PHOTO CD (PCD) POSTSCRIPT (PS) AND ENCAPSULATED POSTSCRIPT (EPS) EPS PORTABLE DOCUMENT FORMAT (PDF) 18 IMAGE STORAGE AND ARCHIVING LIFE EXPECTANCY OF TRADITIONAL PHOTOGRAPHIC MEDIA PROCESSING CONDITIONS DARK FADING LIGHT FADING STORAGE CONDITIONS ATMOSPHERIC GASES TONING LIFE EXPECTANCY OF DIGITAL PRINTS PRINTING TECHNOLOGIES AND MEDIA PERMANENCE FACTORS AND TEST FOR DIGITAL PRINTS DIGITAL IMAGE STORAGE AND LONGEVITY MAGNETIC STORAGE OPTICAL DISC STORAGE CONTENTS OTHER DIGITAL IMAGE ARCHIVING ISSUES 19 INTRODUCTION TO IMAGE QUALITY AND SYSTEM PERFORMANCE SUBJECTIVE AND OBJECTIVE IMAGE QUALITY IMAGE QUALITY ASSESSMENT BASIC IMAGE QUALITY ATTRIBUTES (OR DIMENSIONS) THE IMAGE QUALITY CIRCLE FURTHER IMAGE QUALITY ATTRIBUTES DIGITAL IMAGE ARTEFACTS DISTORTION, ?DELITY AND QUALITY IMAGE DISTORTION IMAGE ?DELITY IMAGE QUALITY THE USE OF A REFERENCE IMAGE TEST CHARTS AND TEST SCENES TEST CHARTS TEST SCENES IMAGE PSYCHOPHYSICS PSYCHOMETRIC SCALES THE PSYCHOMETRIC FUNCTION SCALING METHODS SCENE DEPENDENCY IN IMAGE QUALITY CHOICE OF TEST SCENES IMAGE QUALITY METRICS AND MODELS 20 SPEED AND SENSITIVITY SENSITIVITY OF IMAGING SYSTEMS SPECTRAL SENSITIVITY OF DIGITAL CAMERAS MEASUREMENT OF THE SPECTRAL SENSITIVITY OF DIGITAL CAMERAS DETERMINATION OF THE COLOUR SENSITIVITY OF AN UNKNOWN PHOTOGRAPHIC EMULSION WEDGE SPECTROGRAMS USES OF WEDGE SPECTROGRAMS SPEED OF IMAGING SYSTEMS METHODS OF EXPRESSING SPEED THRESHOLD SYSTEMS FIXED DENSITY INERTIA MINIMUM USEFUL GRADIENT FRACTIONAL GRADIENT ISO SPEED RATINGS FOR COLOUR SILVER-BASED MATERIALS COLOUR NEGATIVE ?LM COLOUR REVERSAL ?LM SPEED OF DIGITAL SYSTEMS SPEED BASED ON SATURATION (SSAT) SPEED BASED ON NOISE (SNOISE) STANDARD OUTPUT SENSITIVITY (SOS) RECOMMENDED EXPOSURE INDEX (REI) DIGITAL CAMERA ISO SETTINGS TYPICAL SENSITIVITIES OF ?LM AND CCD DEVICES AND SPEED RATINGS IN PRACTICE 21 TONE REPRODUCTION THEORY OF TONE REPRODUCTION TRANSFER FUNCTIONS AND GAMMA OVERALL TRANSFER FUNCTION AND OVERALL GAMMA SUBJECTIVE TONE REPRODUCTION, OPTIMUM GAMMA AND VIEWING CONDITIONS QUADRANT DIAGRAM TONE REPRODUCTION OF IMAGING DEVICES AND IMAGE ENCODING SYSTEMS CRT DISPLAY TRANSFER FUNCTION LIQUID CRYSTAL DISPLAY (LCD) TRANSFER FUNCTION MEASURING DISPLAY TRANSFER FUNCTIONS TRANSFER FUNCTIONS OF DIGITAL ACQUISITION DEVICES MEASURING ACQUISITION DEVICE TRANSFER FUNCTIONS IMAGE ENCODING: SRGB, ADOBE RGB AND JPEG TRANSFER FUNCTIONS TRANSFER FUNCTIONS OF PRINTERS OTHER MEASURES RELATED TO TONE AND CONTRAST DYNAMIC RANGE AND CONTRAST RATIO CONTRAST IN UNIFORM AREAS, TEST TARGETS AND IMAGES NON-LINEAR QUANTIZATION, BIT-DEPTH REQUIREMENTS AND GAMMA CORRECTION 22 PHOTOGRAPHIC COLOUR REPRODUCTION COMPLEMENTARY PAIRS OF COLOURS COLOUR PHOTOGRAPHIC PROCESSES ADDITIVE COLOUR PHOTOGRAPHY SUBTRACTIVE PROCESSES INTEGRAL TRIPACKS FORMATION OF SUBTRACTIVE IMAGE DYES COLOUR SENSITOMETRY NEGATIVEEPOSITIVE COLOUR REVERSAL COLOUR COLOUR PHOTOGRAPHIC MATERIALS LOCATION OF COLOUR FORMERS COLOUR PROCESSING REVERSAL PROCESS CONTENTS NEGATIVEEPOSITIVE PROCESS PRINTS FROM TRANSPARENCIES ENHANCEMENT OF COLOUR REPRODUCTION COLORIMETRY OF PHOTOGRAPHIC IMAGES 23 DIGITAL COLOUR REPRODUCTION COLOUR SPACE AND COLOUR ENCODING CLASSI?CATION OF COLOUR SPACES RGB (RED, GREEN, BLUE) CMY(K) (CYAN, MAGENTA, YELLOW, BLACK) HSL (HUE, SATURATION, LIGHTNESS) E AND SIMILAR YCC (LUMINANCE, CHROMINANCE 1, CHROMINANCE 2) E AND SIMILAR CIE COLOUR SPACES COLORIMETRIC COLOUR SPACES COLOUR APPEARANCE SPACES DEVICE DEPENDENT COLOUR SPACES IMAGE STATE SENSOR COLOUR ENCODING SCENE-REFERRED COLOUR ENCODING OUTPUT-REFERRED COLOUR ENCODING ORIGINAL-REFERRED COLOUR ENCODING STANDARD COLOUR SPACE AND COLOUR SPACE ENCODINGS SRGB (STANDARD RGB) AND SRGB-RELATED COLOUR SPACE ENCODINGS SYCC AND SYCC-RELATED ROMM RGB AND RIMM RGB ADOBE RGB 1998 DEVICE COLOUR CHARACTERIZATION PHYSICAL MODELS NUMERICAL MODELS REGRESSION LOOK-UP TABLES WITH INTERPOLATION EVALUATION OF THE CHARACTERIZATION MODEL CHARACTERIZATION OF DISPLAYS CHARACTERIZATION OF DIGITAL INPUT DEVICES GAMUT MAPPING GAMUT MAPPING AIMS GAMUT MAPPING TECHNIQUES 24 NOISE, SHARPNESS, RESOLUTION AND INFORMATION IMAGE NOISE CAUSES OF NOISE IN AN IMAGE PHOTOGRAPHIC NOISE GRAININESS FACTORS AFFECTING THE GRAININESS OF PRINTS GRANULARITY FACTORS AFFECTING NEGATIVE GRANULARITY VARIATION OF GRANULARITY WITH DENSITY QUANTIFYING IMAGE NOISE VARIANCE ESTIMATING S2 SELWYN’S LAW THE AUTOCORRELATION FUNCTION THE NOISE POWER SPECTRUM RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN NOISE MEASURES PRACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR THE AUTOCORRELATION FUNCTION AND THE NOISE POWER SPECTRUM USING THE AUTOCORRELATION FUNCTION DIRECT FOURIER TRANSFORMATION OF NOISE SAMPLES SIGNAL-TO-NOISE RATIO ELECTRONIC SYSTEM NOISE RESOLUTION, SHARPNESS AND MTF RESOLVING POWER OF PHOTOGRAPHIC SYSTEMS MEASURING MODULATION TRANSFER FUNCTIONS WAVE RECORDING E SINE-WAVE METHOD WAVE RECORDING E SQUARE-WAVE METHODS EDGE INPUT METHOD SLANTED EDGE METHOD MTF CORRECTION RESOLVING POWER AND MTF FOR OPTICAL SYSTEMS SHARPNESS, MTF AND IMAGE QUALITY DETECTIVE QUANTUM EF?CIENCY (DQE) GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS DQE FOR THE PHOTOGRAPHIC PROCESS DQE FOR A CCD OR CMOS IMAGING ARRAY DQE AND SIGNAL-TO-NOISE RATIO INFORMATION THEORY INFORMATION CAPACITY OF IMAGES 25 DIGITAL IMAGE WORK?OW IMAGING CHAINS AND IMAGE WORK?OW PRINCIPLES GUIDING EFFECTIVE WORK?OW WORK?OW APPROACH RESOLUTION AND THE DIGITAL IMAGING CHAIN INTERPOLATION INTERPOLATION METHODS AND ASSOCIATED ARTEFACTS INTERPOLATION AND IMAGE WORK?OW CONTENTS CALCULATING REQUIRED RESOLUTION FOR IMAGE OUTPUT BIT DEPTH: 8-BIT VERSUS 16-BIT IMAGING COLOUR WORK?OW FILE FORMATS IMAGE ACQUISITION RAW CAPTURE AND WORK?OW IMAGE EDITING IMAGE OUTPUT IMAGE ARCHIVING IMAGE OPTIMIZATION WORK?OW WORK?OW EXAMPLES 1 COMMERCIAL PHOTOGRAPHY 2 FORENSIC IMAGING 3 MEDICAL IMAGING ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 26 COLOUR MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS COLOUR MANAGEMENT TASKS CLOSED-LOOP VERSUS OPEN-LOOP COLOUR MANAGEMENT THE INTERNATIONAL COLOR CONSORTIUM (ICC) ICC COLOUR MANAGEMENT ARCHITECTURE THE PRO?LE CONNECTION SPACE (PCS) RENDERING INTENTS THE ICC PERCEPTUAL INTENT REFERENCE MEDIUM AND REFERENCE VIEWING CONDITIONS ICC PRO?LES USING PRO?LES PRO?LE PROCESSING MODELS PRO?LE STRUCTURE STRUCTURE OF DEVICE PRO?LES STRUCTURE OF COLOUR SPACE CONVERSION PRO?LES CREATING CUSTOM DEVICE PRO?LES DISPLAY PRO?LES INPUT PRO?LES SCANNER PRO?LING DIGITAL CAMERA PRO?LING USING CAMERA PRO?LES OUTPUT PRO?LES COLOUR MANAGEMENT WORK?OW COLOUR RENDERING OPTIONS EARLY-BINDING VERSUS LATE-BINDING WORK?OW RGB AND CMYK WORK?OWS USING AN INTERMEDIATE COLOUR SPACE PROO?NG AND SOFT-PROO?NG IMAGES 27 SPATIAL IMAGE PROCESSING BACKGROUND STRUCTURE OF THE DIGITAL IMAGE IMPLEMENTATION OF SPATIAL DOMAIN PROCESSES LINEAR SYSTEMS THEORY DISCRETE CONVOLUTION POINT PROCESSING OPERATIONS: INTENSITY TRANSFORMATIONS BRIGHTNESS AND CONTRAST CHANGES USING LINEAR TRANSFORMATION FUNCTIONS PIECEWISE LINEAR FUNCTIONS IMAGE THRESHOLDING AND QUANTIZATION POWER-LAW TRANSFORMATIONS: GAMMA CORRECTION POINT PROCESSING: MULTIPLE IMAGE OPERATIONS ENHANCEMENT USING ARITHMETIC OPERATIONS ENHANCEMENT USING LOGIC OPERATIONS POINT PROCESSING: STATISTICAL OPERATIONS THE IMAGE HISTOGRAM PROBABILITY DENSITY FUNCTION AND PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTION FUNCTION HISTOGRAM SLIDE AND STRETCH HISTOGRAM EQUALIZATION POINT PROCESSING: GEOMETRIC TRANSFORMATIONS NEIGHBOURHOOD PROCESSING: SPATIAL ?LTERING TECHNIQUES LINEAR ?LTERING PROPERTIES OF LINEAR ?LTERS TYPES OF LINEAR ?LTERS AND THEIR APPLICATIONS SMOOTHING SPATIAL ?LTERS EDGE DETECTION AND SHARPENING SPATIAL ?LTERS NON-LINEAR SPATIAL ?LTERING MEDIAN ?LTERS MINIMUM AND MAXIMUM ?LTERS 28 DIGITAL IMAGE PROCESSING IN THE FREQUENCY DOMAIN FOURIER SERIES AND TRANSFORM REVISITED FAST FOURIER TRANSFORM (FFT) IMAGING EQUATION REVISITED LINEAR SPATIAL ?LTERING (CONVOLUTION) FREQUENCY-DOMAIN ?LTERING LOW-PASS ?LTERING HIGH-PASS ?LTERING CONTENTS HIGH-BOOST ?LTER BAND-PASS AND BAND-STOP ?LTERS IMAGE RESTORATION INVERSE ?LTERING OPTIMAL OR WIENER ?LTERING MAXIMUM ENTROPY RECONSTRUCTION INTERACTIVE RESTORATION EXTENDED DEPTH OF ?ELD (EDOF) WAVELET TRANSFORM DISCRETE WAVELET TRANSFORM 29 IMAGE COMPRESSION UNCOMPRESSED IMAGE ?LE SIZES IMAGE DATA AND INFORMATION BASIS OF COMPRESSION TYPES OF REDUNDANCY MEASURING COMPRESSION RATE SCENE DEPENDENCY AND COMPRESSION ENTROPY AND IMAGE STRUCTURE SHANNON’S THEOREM IMAGE COMPRESSION MODELS LOSSLESS COMPRESSION LOSSLESS COMPRESSION METHODS REDUCING SPATIAL REDUNDANCY REDUCING CODING REDUNDANCY: VARIABLE-LENGTH CODING LOSSY COMPRESSION EVALUATING LOSSY COMPRESSION DISTORTION METRICS ALTERNATIVE ASSESSMENT METHODS LOSSY COMPRESSION METHODS QUANTIZATION LOSSY COMPRESSION STANDARDS JOINT PHOTOGRAPHIC EXPERTS GROUP (JPEG) STANDARD JPEG 2000 STANDARD