THE REMOTE SENSING OF TROPOSPHERIC COMPOSITION FROM SPACE

By JOSHUA GONZALEZ

CONTENTS TROPOSPHERIC REMOTE SENSING FROM SPACE REMOTE SENSING AND THE SCOPE OF THE BOOK EARTH OBSERVATION AND REMOTE SENSING ATMOSPHERIC REMOTE SENSING FROM SPACE 1 3 1 PRE-SATELLITE DAYS 1 3 2 SOME HISTORICAL MILESTONES IN SATELLITE REMOTE SENSING 1 3 3 TROPOSPHERIC REMOTE SENSING USING BACK-SCATTERED SOLAR RADIATION 1 3 4 REMOTE SENSING USING THERMAL INFRARED IN THE TROPOSPHERE THE ATMOSPHERE, TROPOSPHERIC CHEMISTRY AND AIR POLLUTION 1 4 1 THE PHYSICAL STRUCTURE OF THE ATMOSPHERE 1 4 2 TROPOSPHERIC CHEMISTRY 1 4 3 AIR POLLUTION AND ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY 1 4 4 ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES OF RELEVANCE TO THE TROPOSPHERE MEASURING ATMOSPHERIC COMPOSITION 1 5 1 LONG TERM OBSERVATIONS 1 5 2 REGIONAL AND EPISODIC STUDIES 1 5 3 INVESTIGATION OF FAST IN SITU PHOTOCHEMISTRY 1 5 4 IN SITU OBSERVATIONAL TECHNIQUES 1 5 5 REMOTE SENSING VERSUS IN SITU TECHNIQUES 1 5 6 THE NEED FOR GLOBAL TROPOSPHERIC MEASUREMENTS FROM SPACE ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION AND MOLECULAR ENERGY LEVELS 1 6 1 ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION 1 6 2 MOLECULAR ENERGY STATES MOLECULAR SPECTRA AND LINE BROADENING 1 7 1 LINE BROADENING MECHANISMS AND THE WIDTH OF ABSORPTION LINES 1 7 2 THE NATURAL LINEWIDTH 1 7 3 PRESSURE BROADENING (COLLISIONAL BROADENING) 1 7 4 DOPPLER BROADENING 1 7 5 ATMOSPHERIC SPECTRAL LINE SHAPES IN DIFFERENT SPECTRAL RANGES SPECTROSCOPIC TECHNIQUES FOR CHEMICAL ANALYSIS 1 8 1 ABSORPTION SPECTROSCOPY 1 8 2 EMISSION SPECTROSCOPY ATMOSPHERIC SCATTERING AND RADIATION TRANSFER 1 9 1 SCATTERING 1 9 2 ATMOSPHERIC RADIATIVE TRANSFER 1 10 REMOTE SENSING: IMAGES AND SPECTROSCOPY 1 10 1 SATELLITE IMAGES 1 10 2 SPECTROSCOPIC TECHNIQUES IN REMOTE SENSING 1 10 3 PASSIVE AND ACTIVE REMOTE SENSING 1 10 4 NADIR, LIMB AND OCCULTATION VIEWS 1 10 5 ACTIVE TECHNIQUES 1 11 SATELLITE ORBITS 1 11 1 LOW EARTH ORBITS (LEO) 1 11 2 GEOSTATIONARY ORBITS (GEO) 1 12 SUMMARY REFERENCES THE USE OF UV, VISIBLE AND NEAR IR SOLAR BACK SCATTERED RADIATION TO DETERMINE TRACE GASES ANDREAS RICHTER AND THOMAS WAGNER 2 1 BASICS AND HISTORICAL BACKGROUND 2 1 1 SATELLITE OBSERVATIONS IN THE UV/VIS/NIR SPECTRAL RANGE 2 1 2 SPECTRAL RETRIEVAL AND RADIATIVE TRANSFER MODELLING 2 2 SPECTRAL RETRIEVAL 2 2 1 DISCRETE WAVELENGTH TECHNIQUES 2 2 2 DOAS TYPE RETRIEVALS 2 2 3 SOME CONSIDERATIONS FOR DOAS RETRIEVALS 2 2 4 ADVANCED DOAS CONCEPTS 2 3 INTERPRETATION OF THE OBSERVATIONS USING RADIATIVE TRANSFER MODELLING 2 3 1 RELEVANT INTERACTION PROCESSES BETWEEN RADIATION AND MATTER 2 3 2 QUANTITIES USED FOR THE CHARACTERISATION OF THE MEASUREMENT SENSITIVITY 2 3 3 IMPORTANT INPUT DATA 2 3 4 OVERVIEW OF EXISTING RADIATIVE TRANSFER MODELS 2 4 SEPARATION OF TROPOSPHERIC AND STRATOSPHERIC SIGNALS 2 4 1 STRATOSPHERIC MEASUREMENT METHODS 2 4 2 RESIDUAL METHODS 2 4 3 MODEL METHOD 2 4 4 CLOUD SLICING METHOD 2 4 5 OTHER POSSIBLE APPROACHES 2 5 UNCERTAINTIES IN UV/VIS/NIR SATELLITE MEASUREMENTS 2 5 1 INSTRUMENT NOISE AND STRAY LIGHT 2 5 2 SPECTROSCOPIC UNCERTAINTIES AND INSTRUMENT SLIT WIDTH 2 5 3 SPECTRAL INTERFERENCE 2 5 4 LIGHT PATH UNCERTAINTIES 2 5 5 UNCERTAINTY OF SEPARATION BETWEEN STRATOSPHERE AND TROPOSPHERE 2 6 SYNOPSIS OF THE HISTORIC, AND EXISTING, INSTRUMENTS AND DATA PRODUCTS 2 7 EXAMPLE OF THE RETRIEVAL PROCESS 2 8 FUTURE DEVELOPMENTS 2 8 1 TECHNICAL DESIGN 2 8 2 DATA ANALYSIS 2 8 3 SYNERGISTIC USE OF COMPLEMENTARY SATELLITE OBSERVATIONS USING THERMAL INFRARED ABSORPTION AND EMISSION TO DETERMINE TRACE GASES CATHY CLERBAUX, JAMES R DRUMMOND, JEAN-MARIE FLAUD AND JOHANNES ORPHAL 3 1 PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES 3 2 THERMAL INFRARED INSTRUMENTS: TECHNIQUES, HISTORY, SPECI?CITY 3 2 1 TECHNIQUES 3 2 2 HISTORY 3 2 3 SPECI?CITY 3 3 THERMAL INFRARED: MISSIONS AND PRODUCTS 3 4 EXAMPLES 3 4 1 LIMB AND SOLAR OCCULTATION INSTRUMENTS 3 4 2 NADIR LOOKING INSTRUMENTS 3 5 FUTURE PLANS FOR TROPOSPHERIC SOUNDERS MICROWAVE ABSORPTION, EMISSION AND SCATTERING: TRACE GASES AND METEOROLOGICAL PARAMETERS INTRODUCTION ATMOSPHERIC REMOTE SENSING IN THE MICROWAVE RANGE 4 2 1 VECTOR AND SCALAR RADIATIVE TRANSFER 4 2 2 GAS ABSORPTION IN THE MICROWAVE REGION 4 2 3 PARTICLE EXTINCTION IN THE MICROWAVE REGION 4 2 4 SIMULATION SOFTWARE 4 2 5 THE INVERSE PROBLEM 4 2 6 OBSERVING TECHNIQUE TEMPERATURE AND WATER VAPOUR PRO?LES 4 3 1 INTRODUCTION 4 3 2 EXAMPLES REMOTE SENSING OF CLOUDS AND PRECIPITATION 4 4 1 INTRODUCTION 4 4 2 RETRIEVAL OF CLOUD LIQUID WATER 4 4 3 RETRIEVAL OF CLOUD ICE WATER 4 4 4 PRECIPITATION APPLICATIONS OF MICROWAVE DATA IN OPERATIONAL METEOROLOGY 4 5 1 DATA ASSIMILATION 4 5 2 MICROWAVE DATA IN OPERATIONAL METEOROLOGY 4 5 3 MICROWAVE RADIATIVE TRANSFER MODELLING IN DATA ASSIMILATION 4 5 4 IMPACT OF REMOTE SENSING DATA ON NWP 4 5 5 CONCLUSIONS MICROWAVE LIMB SOUNDING OF THE TROPOSPHERE 4 6 1 BACKGROUND TO MICROWAVE LIMB SOUNDING OF THE TROPOSPHERE 4 6 2 PREVIOUS, EXISTING AND PLANNED MICROWAVE LIMB SOUNDING INSTRUMENTS 4 6 3 APPLICATIONS OF MICROWAVE LIMB SOUNDING OF THE TROPOSPHERE 4 6 4 UPPER TROPOSPHERIC COMPOSITION AND CHEMISTRY 4 6 5 CONCLUSIONS ACTIVE TECHNIQUES 4 7 1 INTRODUCTION 4 7 2 THE CLOUDSAT RADAR 4 7 3 THE CLOUDSAT MISSION 4 7 4 THE CLOUD PRO?LING RADAR 4 7 5 THE TROPICAL RAINFALL MEASUREMENT MISSION 4 7 6 RESULTS FROM TRMM 4 7 7 CONCLUSIONS MEASURING ATMOSPHERIC PARAMETERS USING THE GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEM 4 8 1 GPS RADIO OCCULTATION 4 8 2 DATA AVAILABILITY AND IMPACT 4 8 3 GROUND-BASED GPS OBSERVATIONS 4 8 4 IMPACT STUDIES OUTLOOK 4 10 TABLES OF MICROWAVE SENSORS REMOTE SENSING OF TERRESTRIAL CLOUDS FROM SPACE USING BACKSCATTERING AND THERMAL EMISSION TECHNIQUES ALEXANDER A KOKHANOVSKY, STEVEN PLATNICK AND MICHAEL D KING 5 1 INTRODUCTION 5 2 CLOUD PARAMETERS AND THEIR RETRIEVALS 5 2 1 CLOUD COVER 5 2 2 CLOUD PHASE 5 2 3 CLOUD OPTICAL THICKNESS 5 2 4 EFFECTIVE RADIUS 5 2 5 CLOUD LIQUID WATER AND ICE PATH 5 2 6 CLOUD TOP HEIGHT 5 3 VALIDATION OF SATELLITE CLOUD PRODUCTS 5 4 MODERN TRENDS IN OPTICAL CLOUD REMOTE SENSING FROM SPACE 5 4 1 HYPERSPECTRAL REMOTE SENSING 5 4 2 LIDAR REMOTE SENSING 5 4 3 FUTURE MISSIONS 5 5 CONCLUSIONS RETRIEVAL OF AEROSOL PROPERTIES AEROSOL RETRIEVAL ALGORITHMS AEROSOL OPTICAL PARAMETERS DATABASES FOR AEROSOL PROPERTIES INSTRUMENTS USED FOR THE RETRIEVAL OF AEROSOL PROPERTIES FROM SPACE RETRIEVAL OF AEROSOL AND CLOUD PARAMETERS FROM CALIPSO OBSERVATIONS 6 6 1 THE CALIPSO SCIENCE PAYLOAD 6 6 2 CALIOP DATA CALIBRATION 6 6 3 DESCRIPTION OF AVAILABLE DATA PRODUCTS FROM CALIOP 6 6 4 CALIOP RETRIEVAL PROCEDURE FOR THE EXTINCTION COEF?CIENT AEROSOL REMOTE SENSING FROM POLDER 6 7 1 POLDER REMOTE SENSING OF AEROSOLS OVER OCEAN SURFACES 6 7 2 POLDER REMOTE SENSING OF AEROSOLS OVER LAND SURFACES RETRIEVAL OF AEROSOL PROPERTIES USING AATSR 6 8 1 AATSR CHARACTERISTICS 6 8 2 AATSR RETRIEVAL ALGORITHM 6 8 3 AATSR PRODUCTS AEROSOL REMOTE SENSING FROM AQUA/MODIS 6 9 1 MODIS REMOTE SENSING OF AEROSOLS OVER OCEAN SURFACES 6 9 2 MODIS REMOTE SENSING OF AEROSOLS OVER LAND 6 10 AEROSOL PROPERTIES FROM OMI 6 10 1 PROPERTIES FROM OMI USING THE MULTI-WAVELENGTH ALGORITHM 6 10 2 STATUS OF THE OMAERO PRODUCT 6 11 RETRIEVAL OF AEROSOL PROPERTIES USING MERIS 6 12 VALIDATION 6 13 AIR QUALITY: USING AOD TO MONITOR PM2 5 IN THE NETHERLANDS 6 13 1 ESTABLISHING AN AOD-PM2 5 RELATIONSHIP 6 13 2 APPLICATION OF THE AOD-PM2 5 RELATIONSHIP TO MODIS DATA 6 14 APPLICATION TO CLIMATE: AEROSOL DIRECT RADIATIVE FORCING 6 14 1 UNCERTAINTIES IN AEROSOL DIRECT RADIATIVE FORCING 6 14 2 COMPARISONS OF AEROSOL RADIATIVE FORCING WITH MODELS 6 14 3 AEROSOL RADIATIVE FORCING: CONCLUSIONS 6 15 USE OF SATELLITES FOR AEROSOL-CLOUD INTERACTION STUDIES 6 16 INTERCOMPARISON OF AEROSOL RETRIEVAL PRODUCTS 6 17 CONCLUSIONS DATA QUALITY AND VALIDATION OF SATELLITE MEASUREMENTS OF TROPOSPHERIC COMPOSITION ANKIE J M PITERS, BRIGITTE BUCHMANN, DOMINIK BRUNNER, RONALD C COHEN, JEAN-CHRISTOPHER LAMBERT, GERRIT DE LEEUW, PIET STAMMES, MICHIEL VAN WEELE AND FOLKARD WITTROCK 7 1 INTRODUCTION 7 2 METHODS OF VALIDATION 7 2 1 DE?NITIONS 7 2 2 COMPARING DATA SETS 7 2 3 USE OF MODELS 7 2 4 DATA VARIABILITY 7 3 QUALITY ASSURANCE 7 3 1 VALIDATION AND MISSION PLANNING 7 3 2 CALIBRATION 7 3 3 LOWER-LEVEL DATA PRODUCTS 7 3 4 RETRIEVAL ALGORITHM OPTIMISATION 7 3 5 INSTRUMENT DEGRADATION 7 3 6 OVERALL QUALITY MONITORING 7 4 VALIDATION CHARACTERISTICS OF TROPOSPHERIC PRODUCTS 7 4 1 TROPOSPHERIC PROCESSES IMPACTING ON TRACE GAS DISTRIBUTIONS 7 4 2 VALIDATION NEEDS FOR TRACE GASES WITH STRATOSPHERIC CONTRIBUTIONS 7 4 3 VALIDATION NEEDS RELATED TO CLOUD, ALBEDO AND AEROSOL EFFECTS 7 4 4 VALIDATION NEEDS FOR AEROSOLS 7 5 THE USE OF CORRELATIVE MEASUREMENTS FOR VALIDATION 7 5 1 IN SITU MEASUREMENTS 7 5 2 REMOTE SENSING 7 5 3 NETWORKS AND DATA CENTRES 7 5 4 VALIDATION ACTIVITIES 7 6 FUTURE VALIDATION STRATEGIES 7 6 1 REQUIREMENTS FOR FUTURE VALIDATION MEASUREMENTS 7 6 2 VALIDATION STRATEGY FOR TROPOSPHERIC O3 7 6 3 VALIDATION STRATEGY FOR TROPOSPHERIC NO2 7 6 4 VALIDATION STRATEGY FOR CO APPLICATIONS OF SATELLITE OBSERVATIONS OF TROPOSPHERIC COMPOSITION PAUL S MONKS AND STEFFEN BEIRLE 8 1 INTRODUCTION 8 2 OVERVIEW OF THE TROPOSPHERIC CHEMICAL SPECIES MEASURED FROM SPACE 8 2 1 TROPOSPHERIC OZONE, O3 8 2 3 CARBON MONOXIDE, CO 8 2 4 FORMALDEHYDE, HCHO 8 2 5 GLYOXAL, CHOCHO 8 2 8 CARBON DIOXIDE, CO2 8 2 9 METHANE, CH4 8 2 10 WATER, H2O 8 2 11 BROMINE MONOXIDE, BRO 8 2 12 IODINE MONOXIDE, IO 8 2 13 METHANOL, CH3OH 8 2 14 NITROUS OXIDE, N2O 8 2 15 NITRIC ACID, HNO3 8 2 16 OTHER TRACE SPECIES 8 3 SATELLITE OBSERVATIONS OF TROPOSPHERIC COMPOSITION: WHAT CAN WE LEARN? 8 3 1 COLUMN DENSITY MAPS AS PROXIES FOR EMISSIONS 8 3 2 MONITORING TRANSPORT AND CIRCULATION 8 3 3 TRENDS 8 3 4 PERIODICAL TEMPORAL PATTERNS 8 3 5 SYNERGISTIC USE OF DIFFERENT MEASUREMENTS 8 3 6 OPERATIONAL USE 8 4 SUMMARY AND OUTLOOK SYNERGISTIC USE OF RETRIEVED TRACE CONSTITUENT DISTRIBUTIONS AND NUMERICAL MODELLING MARIA KANAKIDOU, MARTIN DAMERIS, HENDRIK ELBERN, MATTHIAS BEEKMANN, IGOR B KONOVALOV, LARS NIERADZIK, ACHIM STRUNK AND MAARTEN C KROL 9 1 INTRODUCTION 9 2 USE OF SATELLITE DATA FOR PROCESS UNDERSTANDING AND MODEL EVALUATION 9 2 1 UNDERSTANDING ATMOSPHERIC CHEMISTRY 9 2 2 MODEL EVALUATIONS – COMPARISON WITH OBSERVATION 9 3 INVERSE MODELLING 9 3 1 INVERSIONS FOR SHORT-LIVED SPECIES 9 3 3 NEED FOR FUTURE DEVELOPMENTS 9 4 DATA ASSIMILATION 9 4 1 OBJECTIVES AND STATE OF THE ART APPROACHES 9 4 2 EXAMPLE RESULTS FOR TROPOSPHERIC O3 ASSIMILATION 9 4 3 EXAMPLE RESULTS FOR NO2 TROPOSPHERIC COLUMN ASSIMILATION 9 4 4 AEROSOL SATELLITE DATA ASSIMILATION 9 5 SUMMARY: PERSPECTIVES 9 6 APPENDIX INVERSE MODELLING: PRINCIPLES CONCLUSIONS AND PERSPECTIVES JOHN P BURROWS, ULRICH PLATT AND PETER BORRELL 10 1 INTRODUCTION: THE NEED FOR SATELLITE OBSERVATIONS 10 2 SOME SCIENTI?C HIGHLIGHTS 10 2 1 OBSERVED COMPOUNDS 10 2 3 INDUSTRIAL EMISSIONS AND BIOMASS BURNING 10 2 4 OZONE, O3 10 2 5 GREENHOUSE GASES 10 2 6 WATER VAPOUR, AND OTHER HYDROLOGICAL AND CLOUD PARAMETERS 10 2 7 AEROSOL AND CLOUD PARAMETERS 10 2 8 VOLCANIC EMISSIONS 10 3 SCIENTI?C NEEDS 10 4 FURTHER INTERPRETATION OF DATA FROM CURRENT INSTRUMENTATION 10 4 1 RETRIEVAL ALGORITHM DEVELOPMENTS 10 4 2 THE USE OF MULTIPLE OBSERVATIONS 10 4 3 DATA ASSIMILATION 10 5 IDEALISED REQUIREMENTS FOR THE EVOLUTION OF INSTRUMENTATION 10 6 PERSPECTIVES FOR THE IMPROVEMENT OF INSTRUMENT TECHNOLOGY 10 6 1 POLARISATION MEASUREMENTS 10 6 2 MEASUREMENTS FOR TOMOGRAPHIC RECONSTRUCTION 10 6 3 MULTI-WAVELENGTH HYPER-SPECTRAL MEASUREMENTS 10 6 4 MULTI-INSTRUMENT MEASUREMENTS 10 6 5 MICROWAVE AND SUB-MM SPECTRAL REGION 10 6 6 ACTIVE SYSTEMS 10 7 CURRENT AND FUTURE PLANNED MISSIONS 10 7 1 LEO SATELLITE INSTRUMENTS 10 7 2 GEO SATELLITE INSTRUMENTS 10 7 3 GREENHOUSE GASES 10 7 4 OBSERVATIONS FROM THE LAGRANGE POINT 10 8 FUTURE MONITORING OF THE TROPOSPHERE FROM SPACE 10 9 CONCLUSIONS