ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STUDY
Chapter 1 Scientific facades—how not to prepare an EIS: A case study on how a flawed EIS process can imperil society 1 11 Learning objectives 3 12 A human and environmental disaster of epic proportions 3 121 Thinking about the unthinkable 3 13 Calvert Cliffs—NEPA’s first major lawsuit 5 131 A perilous legacy 6 14 NRC’s flawed EIS process 8 141 NRC’s troubled license renewal program 8 15 When mismanagement threatens society 9 16 Nuclear power and black swans 10 161 The NRC’s disingenuous NEPA process 11 162 Failed programmatic decision making 12 1621 Neglecting to seriously consider programmatic alternatives 13 1622 Failure to evaluate the alternative of not renewing licenses 14 163 A meaningless public comment process 14 1631 Dismissing issues outside the plant’s licensing basis 15 1632 Beyond design basis accidents 16 1633 Dismissing stakeholder and public concerns 17 164 Can the consequences of a “serious nuclear accident” really be “small”? 19 1641 When the impacts of a severe accident are “small” 21 1642 Obscuring the risk of a catastrophic nuclear accident 22 1643 Concealing the probability of a catastrophic accident 23 1644 When the risk of a catastrophic nuclear accident is really “large” 24 1645 Concealing impacts of a severe accident 25 165 Concealing cumulative risk from the public 26 166 Failure to assess significance 27 1661 Intensity factors to be used in assessing significance 27 167 Reaching the final decision before the EIS process has been completed 29 1671 Failure to adequately evaluate the no-action alternative 30 168 Failure to adequately evaluate reasonable alternatives 31 169 Issues never considered or disclosed 32 17 Making the EIS process work 33 171 A re-review of license renewal 34 Notes 35 Chapter 2 Overview of NEPA and the EIS process 39 21 Learning objectives 39 22 The development of NEPA and the EIS requirement 40 221 The prelude to NEPA 40 222 Lynton Caldwell—the architect of the EIS 41 23 The NEPA statute 42 231 Titles I and II of the NEPA statute 42 232 Title I of NEPA 43 2321 Section 101 43 2322 Section 102 44 2323 “Evidence-based” decision-making process 45 233 Title II of NEPA 46 2331 CEQ NEPA implementing regulations 46 24 The threshold question 47 241 Proposals 47 242 Legislation 48 243 Major 48 244 Federal 48 245 Actions 48 246 Significantly 48 2461 Context 49 2462 Intensity 49 247 Affecting 50 248 Human environment 51 25 Overview of the NEPA process 51 251 Three levels of NEPA compliance 51 2511 Initiating the NEPA process 52 2512 Categorically excluding actions 53 2513 The environmental assessment 53 2514 Environmental impact statement 54 26 Introduction to the EIS process 54 261 Initiating the EIS process 54 262 The draft and final EIS 56 2621 Record of decision 56 263 Why an EIS protects human life and the environment 56 27 Sliding scale, rule of reason, and nomenclature 57 271 The sliding scale 57 272 Rule of reason 58 273 Nomenclature 58 Notes 59 Chapter 3 Preliminaries and prescoping: Initiating the EIS and tools for managing the process 61 31 Learning objectives 61 32 Initiating the EIS process 62 321 Initiating the EIS during the early proposal stage 63 322 Why an EIS provides an early warning sign of trouble ahead 64 323 Identifying the lead and any other cooperating agencies64 3231 Cooperating agencies 65 3232 Identifying and selecting the lead agency 65 324 Forming and coordinating an interdisciplinary team 66 3241 Interdisciplinary versus multidisciplinary team67 3242 Selecting an EIS manager 67 33 Prescoping 72 331 Defining the purpose and need 72 3311 How the “underlying need” provides a technique for determining the range of alternatives 73 332 The “purpose” provides a basis for decision making 78 333 Identifying potential decisions that may have to be made78 334 Decision-based scoping 78 335 Integration with other planning and regulatory requirements 79 336 Potential environmental statutes and requirements 80 337 Integrating SEPA, and state and local requirements 81 338 Identifying interim actions 81 3381 Interim action justification memorandum 82 34 EIS management tools 82 341 Management action plan 82 3411 Functional roles and responsibilities matrix 83 342 Annotated outline, budget, and schedule 84 3421 Budgeting and the work breakdown structure 84 3422 Schedule 86 343 Developing a public involvement strategy 87 3431 Managing conflict 88 344 Preparing the scoping plan, notices, and advertisements 89 3441 EIS distribution list 90 3442 Facebook, Twitter, and YouTube and social media 90 345 Establishing an auditable trail and administrative record91 3451 The agency’s administrative record 91 3452 A court’s review of the agency’s ADREC 92 3453 Preparing and maintaining the ADREC 94 346 The Federal Records Act and maintaining an ADREC 94 3461 Preparing and maintaining a records management system 95 3462 ARTS and COMTRACK database 95 347 Selecting an EIS contractor 96 3471 Statement of work 97 3472 Scheduling 97 3473 Shopping for a contractor 97 348 Data collection 98 3481 Ensuring data accuracy 99 3482 Incomplete or unavailable data 99 3483 Commonly required types of environmental and engineering data 100 3484 Collecting data through environmental monitoring 101 35 Summary 102 Notes 104 Chapter 4 Preparing the EIS: The step-by-step process requirements 107 41 Learning objectives 107 42 General EIS direction and concepts 108 421 “Proposal” versus “proposed action”110 422 Timing requirements and page lengths110 4221 When to begin preparation of the EIS111 4222 Maximum recommended duration for preparing an EIS111 4223 All EIS timing limits111 423 Emergency situations and classified proposals111 4231 Emergency situations111 4232 Classified proposals 112 43 Issuing the notice of intent113 431 Federal Register114 44 The formal scoping process115 441 Purpose and goals of scoping115 4411 Descoping116 442 Exemptions to the EIS formal scoping requirement117 4421 Supplemental and legislative EISs are exempt from formal scoping117 443 Initiating the scoping process117 4431 Scoping information package117 444 Performing the scoping process118 4441 Public scoping meetings118 4442 Finalizing the scope of the EIS119 4443 Creeping scope syndrome 121 45 Consultation and identifying environmental regulatory requirements 121 451 Endangered Species Act 122 4511 Section 7 consultation 123 4512 The Biological Evaluation and Biological Assessment 123 4513 Section 9 124 452 National Historic Preservation Act 124 4521 The SHPO and THPO 125 4522 National Register of Historic Places 125 4523 Section 106 review 125 453 Clean Water Act 127 4531 Wetlands 127 4532 Section 401 water quality certification 128 4533 Section 404 128 4534 Floodplain and wetlands 129 4535 Coastal zone management 129 46 Preparing the draft EIS 130 461 Preparing the EIS 130 4611 Maintaining the EIS schedule 130 4612 Obtaining data 131 4613 Keeping the public informed of important changes 133 462 Internal agency review 133 47 Filing the DEIS with the EPA 134 471 The filing process and public notification 135 4711 Public review period requirements 135 4712 EPA’s filing responsibilities 135 4713 Filing EISs electronically 137 472 Publication of the notice of availability 138 4721 Filing date 138 4722 Minimum EIS review and waiting periods 139 473 EPA’s EIS repository 139 48 Circulating the draft EIS for public comment 140 481 Tips for minimizing EIS printing and distribution costs141 482 Inviting comments on the DEIS 142 483 Parties that the agency must seek comments from 143 484 Circulating a summary 143 485 EPA’s Section 309 review 144 486 EPA’s review 144 4861 EPA principal reviewer 145 487 EPA’s rating system 145 4871 Alphanumeric rating system 146 4872 Deficient proposals and EISs 146 488 EPA’s review of the final EIS 147 4881 Focus of the review 147 489 EPA monitoring and follow-up 147 49 Preparing the final EIS 148 491 Reviewing and responding to public comments on the DEIS 148 4911 Considering and assessing comments 148 4912 Responding to comments 149 492 Issuing the FEIS 151 4921 Procedures for issuing the final EIS 151 493 Mandatory 30-day waiting period 152 4931 Exceptions to the 30-day waiting period 153 410 The record of decision 153 4101 Choosing a course of action 153 41011 Responsible official 154 41012 Decision factors 154 41013 Bounded alternatives 155 4102 Issuing the ROD and the 30-day waiting period 156 411 Mitigation, post-EIS monitoring, and enforcement 156 4111 Mitigation and monitoring transparency 157 4112 Recent mitigation and monitoring guidance 157 4113 Adaptive management 158 4114 Mitigation 159 41141 Mitigation measures 159 41142 Implementing mitigation measures 160 4115 Monitoring 160 41151 Monitoring direction161 41152 Monitoring objectives161 41153 Monitoring methods161 41154 Factors considered in prioritizing monitoring activities161 4116 Using an EMS to implement the decision, mitigation, and monitoring162 41161 Environmental management system162 41162 Integrating NEPA with an EMS 163 412 Referrals 164 4121 Referral time periods 164 4122 Procedure for making a referral 165 413 Supplemental EISs 165 4131 Additional supplementation direction 166 414 Legislative EISs167 4141 Preparing a legislative EIS167 41411 Differences in the L-EIS process167 415 Programmatic EISs 168 4151 The consequences of failing to prepare a P-EIS 168 4152 Programmatic EISs and tiering 169 4153 Determining appropriate scope of a P-EIS 170 Notes 171 Chapter 5 Performing the EIS analysis 175 51 Learning objectives176 52 Requirements governing the EIS analysis176 521 Rule of reason and sliding-scale approach 177 5211 Sliding-scale approach 177 522 Conducting a fair and objective analysis 178 523 Requirements for performing a scientific analysis 178 524 Requirement for developing methods and procedures 179 525 Rigorous analysis 179 53 Six-step technique for analyzing impacts 181 531 Actions 181 5311 Component actions 182 532 Environmental disturbances 182 533 Receptors and resources 183 534 Impact analysis (consequences) 183 535 Interpreting the impact 183 536 Significance 184 5361 Assessing significance 185 5362 Context 185 537 Mitigation and monitoring 185 54 Impact assessment methodologies 186 541 Geographic information system 186 5411 How a GIS can be used in preparing EIS 187 542 Matrices 188 5421 Evaluating cumulative impacts 190 543 Environmental checklists 190 544 Networks 192 545 Carrying capacity analysis 192 546 Ecosystem analyses 195 55 Investigating and describing the “affected environment” and “alternatives” 197 551 Describing the affected environment 197 5511 Determining spatial boundaries 198 5512 Determining temporal boundaries 198 552 Investigating reasonable alternatives 199 5521 Identification and assessment of alternatives 199 5522 Identifying alternatives 200 56 Assessing direct and indirect impacts, and significance 202 561 Describing impacts 202 562 “Reasonably foreseeable” versus “remote or speculative” impacts 203 5621 Remote or speculative 204 563 Indirect impacts 204 564 Interpreting significance 207 57 Performing a health impact assessment in an EIS 207 571 General guidance 208 5711 Determining when to analyze health impacts 208 5712 Determining the appropriate scope of analysis208 5713 Identifying affected populations 209 5714 Performing the assessment and mitigation measures 209 58 Performing the cumulative impact assessment 209 581 Avoiding legally deficient analyses 210 5811 Examples of flawed cumulative impact assessment 210 5812 Concealing cumulative risk 212 582 Defining the cumulative impact baseline214 5821 Defining spatial and temporal boundaries214 5822 Identifying other past, present, and future activities214 583 Five-step procedure for assessing cumulative impacts214 5831 Proximate cause: defining limits of the analysis 215 584 Performing the CIA216 585 Eccleston’s Cumulative Impact Paradox 217 5851 Eccleston’s Paradox 219 59 Performing a greenhouse gas and climate change assessment 221 591 General direction for performing the assessment 221 5911 Dealing with uncertainties 221 592 Five-step procedure for assessing GHG emissions 223 593 Investigating alternatives and mitigation measures 223 5931 Carbon neutral program 224 594 Describing greenhouse emissions and impacts 224 5941 Emissions versus impact 225 595 How to prepare a flawed GHG analysis 226 5951 Just how dirty can a clean energy project be? 226 5952 How to prepare a flawed greenhouse assessment 226 596 Other examples of how GHG emissions have been addressed 229 5961 Gilberton Coal-to-Clean Fuels and Power EIS 230 5962 FutureGen project EIS 230 597 Assessing cumulative GHG emissions 231 5971 GHG emissions: death by a thousand puffs 231 510 Performing an accident analyses in an EIS 232 5101 Great Molasses Flood disaster 234 5102 Significance and potentially catastrophic scenarios 235 5103 Identifying potential accident scenarios 235 51031 Design-basis and beyond-design-basis accidents 236 51032 Beyond-design-basis accident 236 51033 Determining a reasonable range of scenarios 236 5104 Applying the sliding-scale approach in performing an accident analysis 237 51041 Remote and speculative accident scenarios 238 5105 Analytical methodology 238 51051 Assessing reasonably foreseeable adverse impacts 238 51052 Risk–uncertainty significance test 240 Notes 246 Chapter 6 Writing the environmental impact statement: The EIS documentation requirements 249 61 Learning objectives 251 62 Requirement for writing the notice of intent 251 63 General requirements for writing the EIS 252 631 Importance of reducing the size of the EIS 254 6311 A “NEPA miscarriage” 254 6312 Incorporation by reference 255 632 Writing in plain language 256 6321 Clapham Bus Test 256 6322 Readability direction 256 633 A full and fair discussion 257 634 A rigorous yet understandable analysis 257 635 A public input, participation, and disclosure process 258 6351 Disclosing opposing points of view 258 6352 How a well-orchestrated public involvement process can lead to a successful project 259 636 Documenting assumptions 259 637 Incomplete and unavailable information 260 638 Quantifying the analysis 260 6381 Intensity and duration 260 6382 Comparison to regulatory standards 261 639 Economic and cost–benefit considerations 262 6391 Cost–benefit analysis 263 64 Techniques and hints for writing the EIS 264 641 Citation methods 264 642 Use of the word “would” versus “will” 265 643 Units of measurement 265 644 Definitions, abbreviations, and acronyms 265 6441 The magical number seven 266 65 Page limits and size of the EIS 266 651 Page limits and the “main body” of the EIS 266 652 Reducing document size 269 653 How much detail is enough? The sufficiency question 270 6531 The sufficiency question 270 66 EIS content and format 271 661 Addressing public scoping and draft EIS review comments 272 6611 Comments on review of the draft EIS 272 662 Preparing the “draft” versus “final” EIS 273 6621 When schedule trumps accuracy and quality 273 663 EIS cover sheet274 664 EIS summary