REMOTE SENSING FOR ECOLOGY AND CONSERVATION
CONTENTS PART I GETTING STARTED: REMOTE SENSING FUNDAMENTALS 1 INTRODUCTION: WHY ECOLOGISTS AND CONSERVATION BIOLOGISTS USE REMOTE SENSING 1 1 OUR AIMS AND OBJECTIVES 1 2 WHY REMOTE SENSING TOOLS ARE IMPORTANT 1 2 1 OBSERVATION 1 2 2 ANALYSIS AND MEASUREMENT 1 2 3 MAPPING 1 2 4 MONITORING OVER TIME AND SPACE 1 2 5 DECISION SUPPORT 1 3 ORGANIZATION OF THE BOOK 1 3 1 GETTING STARTED: REMOTE SENSING FUNDAMENTALS 1 3 2 ECOLOGICAL SYSTEMS AND PROCESSES 1 3 3 PUTTING IT INTO PRACTICE: CONSERVATION APPLICATIONS 1 3 4 APPENDICES 1 4 REMOTE SENSING: A TECHNOLOGY IN DEVELOPMENT 2 WHEN TO USE REMOTE SENSING 2 1 PHYSICAL AND PRACTICAL LIMITATIONS OF REMOTELY SENSED IMAGERY 2 1 1 RESOLUTION 2 1 2 WORKING AT DIFFERENT SCALES: PRACTICAL AND CONCEPTUAL LIMITATIONS 2 1 3 USING REMOTE SENSING TO STUDY SOCIAL PHENOMENA 2 2 ACCURACY 2 2 1 TYPES OF ERROR 2 2 2 DEFINING ACCEPTABLE ACCURACY 2 2 3 MEASURING AND REPORTING ACCURACY 2 2 4 UNDERSTANDING ACCURACY STATISTICS 2 2 5 TRENDS IN ACCURACY ASSESSMENT 2 3 ASSESSING IN-HOUSE CAPABILITIES (INSTITUTIONAL LIMITATIONS) 2 3 1 DOING WORK IN-HOUSE OR CONTRACTING OUT 2 3 2 TRAINING 2 3 3 FINDING A GOOD REMOTE SENSING CONSULTANT 2 4 SUMMARY 3 WORKING WITH IMAGES 3 1 CHOOSING THE RIGHT TYPE OF IMAGERY 3 1 1 MULTISPECTRAL IMAGING 3 1 2 SPATIAL RESOLUTION AND SCALE 3 1 3 TEMPORAL OPTIONS: SEASONALITY AND FREQUENCY OF ACQUISITIONS 3 1 4 REQUESTING IMAGERY 3 1 5 MAKING THE DECISION 3 2 SOFTWARE OPTIONS 3 2 1 GRAPHICS SOFTWARE 3 2 2 GIS SOFTWARE 3 2 3 SPECIALIZED REMOTE SENSING SOFTWARE 3 2 4 MATHEMATICAL AND VISUALIZATION SOFTWARE 3 2 5 DECIDING WHICH SOFTWARE TO USE 3 3 VISUALIZING THE DATA 3 3 1 COMBINING BANDS TO MAKE A COLOR COMPOSITE 3 3 2 IMAGE ENHANCEMENTS 3 3 3 IMAGE SHARPENING WITH A PANCHROMATIC BAND 3 3 4 THREE-DIMENSIONAL VIEWING 3 4 ADDITIONAL PROCESSING 3 4 1 RADIOMETRIC PROCESSING 3 4 2 REFLECTANCE: THE HOLY GRAIL OF REMOTE SENSING 3 4 3 GEOMETRIC PROCESSING 3 5 IMAGE INTERPRETATION AND CLASSIFICATION 3 5 1 VISUAL INTERPRETATION 3 5 2 IMAGE CLASSIFICATION 3 5 3 ACCURACY ASSESSMENT 3 6 SUMMARY PART II ECOLOGICAL SYSTEMS AND PROCESSES 4 MEASURING AND MONITORING LAND COVER, LAND USE, AND VEGETATION CHARACTERISTICS 4 1 LAND COVER CLASSIFICATION LAND COVER VERSUS LAND USE OPTIONS FOR OUTPUT PRODUCTS COMPARING LAND COVER MAPS WITH IMAGE PHOTOPRODUCTS GETTING STARTED REQUIREMENTS FOR CREATING A LAND COVER CLASSIFICATION MAP DEFINE THE STUDY AREA DEFINING A CLASSIFICATION SCHEME SELECTING IMAGERY IMAGE PREPROCESSING 4 1 10 ANCILLARY DATA 4 1 11 CLASSIFICATION METHODS 4 1 12 FIELD VALIDATION 4 1 13 ACCURACY ASSESSMENT 4 1 14 USING THE COMPLETED MAP 4 2 MONITORING LAND COVER CHANGE REASONS FOR MAPPING LAND COVER CHANGE MONITORING CHANGES IN FOREST COVER VISUAL METHODS FOR MONITORING LAND COVER CHANGE SELECTING A CHANGE DETECTION METHOD DEALING WITH DIFFERENT DATA SOURCES DATA NORMALIZATION VALIDATING CHANGE DETECTION RESULTS PLANNING A LAND COVER CHANGE PROJECT 4 3 VEGETATION CHARACTERISTICS USING VEGETATION INDICES PRINCIPLE COMPONENTS ANALYSIS (PCA) OTHER MODIS VEGETATION DATA PRODUCTS USING ACTIVE SENSORS FOR VEGETATION MAPPING 4 4 SUMMARY 5 TERRAIN AND SOILS 5 1 ELEVATION WHAT IS ELEVATION? REPRESENTING THREE-DIMENSIONAL SURFACES ACQUIRING ELEVATION DATA DEM PREPROCESSING PRODUCTS DERIVED FROM DEMS USING DEMS TO IMPROVE MAPPING ACCURACY THREE-DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS AND VISUALIZATION CONTENTS 5 2 GEOLOGY AND SOILS 5 2 1 GEOLOGY 5 2 2 SOILS 5 3 SUMMARY 6 MARINE AND COASTAL ENVIRONMENTS 6 1 SEPARATING THE SURFACE, WATER COLUMN, AND BOTTOM 6 1 1 WATER TYPES 6 1 2 WATER COLUMN CORRECTION 6 1 3 BATHYMETRY 6 1 4 TOP-DOWN VERSUS BOTTOM-UP APPROACHES 6 2 WATER PROPERTIES 6 2 1 CHLOROPHYLL 6 2 2 PRIMARY PRODUCTIVITY 6 2 3 HARMFUL ALGAL BLOOMS 6 2 4 SEA SURFACE TEMPERATURE (SST) 6 2 5 PREDICTING CORAL BLEACHING 6 2 6 SALINITY 6 2 7 OCEAN CIRCULATION 6 3 SHALLOW BENTHIC ENVIRONMENTS 6 3 1 CORAL REEFS 6 3 2 SEAGRASSES AND KELP 6 4 SUMMARY 7 WETLANDS—ESTUARIES, INLAND WETLANDS, AND FRESHWATER LAKES 7 1 MANGROVES 7 2 SALT AND FRESHWATER MARSHES 7 2 1 LIDAR MAPPING OF WETLAND ELEVATION 7 2 2 LIDAR MAPPING OF WETLAND VEGETATION 7 2 3 SPECTRAL CHARACTERISTICS USED IN MAPPING OF MARSHES 7 2 4 COMBINING LIDAR AND MULTISPECTRAL DATA 7 2 5 RADAR MAPPING OF WETLANDS 7 2 6 USING RADAR TO MAP HURRICANE-RELATED FLOODING 7 3 SHORELINE MAPPING OF LAKES AND RIVERS 7 4 WATER QUALITY MAPPING AND MONITORING 7 4 1 HYPERSPECTRAL REMOTE SENSING OF WATER QUALITY 7 4 2 THERMAL MAPPING 7 5 SUMMARY CONTENTS 8 ATMOSPHERE AND CLIMATE 8 1 CLIMATE AND THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT 8 2 CLOUDS 8 2 1 CLOUDS AND CLIMATE 8 2 2 HOW CLOUD REMOTE SENSING WORKS 8 3 AEROSOLS 8 3 1 AEROSOLS AND CLIMATE 8 3 2 AEROSOLS AND BIOLOGICAL PRODUCTIVITY 8 3 3 HOW AEROSOL REMOTE SENSING WORKS 8 4 PRECIPITATION 8 4 1 THE BASICS OF PRECIPITATION 8 4 2 GROUND-BASED RADAR 8 4 3 HOW REMOTE SENSING OF PRECIPITATION WORKS 8 4 4 A CAVEAT REGARDING PRECIPITATION PRODUCTS 8 4 5 GLOBAL PRECIPITATION CLIMATOLOGY PRODUCT 8 4 6 FEEDBACKS BETWEEN VEGETATION AND PRECIPITATION 8 5 WINDS 8 5 1 THE BASICS OF GLOBAL WINDS 8 5 2 HOW REMOTE SENSING OF WIND WORKS 8 5 3 WINDS AND OCEAN PRODUCTIVITY 8 6 TEMPERATURE AND THE RADIATION BUDGET 8 6 1 TEMPERATURE AND VEGETATION 8 6 2 TEMPERATURE AND SPECIES 8 6 3 THE BASICS OF EARTH’S RADIATION BUDGET AND TEMPERATURE 8 6 4 REMOTE SENSING OF EARTH’S RADIATION BUDGET AND TEMPERATURE 8 6 5 LONG-TERM TEMPERATURE DATA SETS 8 7 GLOBAL CLIMATE MODELING APPLICATIONS TO ECOLOGY AND CONSERVATION 8 8 SUMMARY AND A POTENTIAL WAY FORWARD THROUGH ECOLOGICAL FORECASTING 9 DISTURBANCES: FIRES AND FLOODS 9 1 FIRES AND LOGGING IN THE HUMID TROPICS 9 1 1 TROPICAL FIRES AND BIODIVERSITY 9 1 2 TROPICAL FIRES AND THE ATMOSPHERE 9 2 REMOTE SENSING OF FIRE AND ITS AFTERMATH 9 2 1 PREFIRE ASSESSMENT 9 2 2 FIRE DETECTION AND MONITORING CONTENTS 9 2 3 POSTFIRE ASSESSMENT 9 2 4 SOME SATELLITE FIRE PRODUCTS REMOTE SENSING OF FLOODS 9 3 1 PASSIVE AND ACTIVE REMOTE SENSING OF FLOODS OTHER DISTURBANCE MECHANISMS 9 4 1 VOLCANOES 9 4 2 DAMS SUMMARY PART III PUTTING REMOTE SENSING INTO PRACTICE: CONSERVATION AND ECOLOGY APPLICATIONS 10 LANDSCAPE FRAGMENTATION FRAGMENTATION BASICS FRAGMENTATION METRICS ISSUES IN PROCESSING FRAGMENTATION DATA COMPOSITION METRICS CONFIGURATION, EDGE, AND CONNECTIVITY METRICS FRACTAL DIMENSIONS CONNECTIVITY METRICS ROUTE NETWORK METRICS FRAGMENTATION ANALYSES AT DIFFERENT SCALES USING REMOTE SENSING 10 10 SUMMARY 11 HUMAN INTERFACES AND URBAN CHANGE IMPORTANCE OF REMOTELY SENSED DATA FOR STUDYING URBAN INTERFACES DATA SOURCES FOR URBAN CLASSIFICATION DATA ANALYSIS TECHNIQUES 11 3 1 IMAGE RECTIFICATION 11 3 2 PREPROCESSING 11 3 3 CHANGE DETECTION ALGORITHMS ACCURACY MEASUREMENTS FOR URBAN CHANGE TEXTURE ANALYSIS COMPLEX URBAN LAND COVER ANALYSES CONTENTS 11 7 URBAN HEAT ISLANDS 11 8 SUMMARY 12 PROTECTED AREA DESIGN AND MONITORING 12 1 PLANNING FOR PROTECTED AREAS 12 1 1 DESIGNING INDIVIDUAL PROTECTED AREAS 12 1 2 DESIGNING NETWORKS OF PROTECTED AREAS 12 2 MANAGING AND MONITORING PROTECTED AREAS 12 3 INTEGRATING REMOTELY SENSED DATA AND SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS INTO PROTECTED AREA PLANNING AND MONITORING 12 4 GLOBAL-SCALE MONITORING AND RESOURCES FOR REMOTELY SENSED DATA AND PROTECTED AREAS 12 5 SUMMARY AND CAUTIONS ABOUT THE USE OF REMOTELY SENSED DATA FOR PROTECTED AREA DESIGN AND MONITORING 13 INTEGRATING FIELD DATA 13 1 INTEGRATING FIELD DATA AND REMOTELY SENSED DATA 13 1 1 REMOTE SENSING VERSUS FIELD METHODS 13 1 2 HANDHELD SENSORS: AN INTERSECTION OF REMOTE SENSING AND FIELD METHODS 13 1 3 GROUND-LEVEL FIELD PHOTOGRAPHY 13 1 4 TELEMETRY 13 2 SUMMARY 14 LINKING REMOTE SENSING WITH MODELING 14 1 WHAT ARE MODELS? 14 2 HOW DO I START? STEPS TO DEVELOPING MODELS 14 2 1 ESTABLISH PROBLEM STATEMENT 14 2 2 DEFINE YOUR MODEL SYSTEM’S BOUNDARIES 14 2 3 DEFINE YOUR MODELING APPROACH 14 2 4 IDENTIFY MODEL VARIABLES 14 2 5 TEST AND VALIDATE YOUR MODEL 14 3 WHAT REMOTE SENSING PRODUCTS ARE COMMONLY USED IN MODELING? 14 3 1 CLIMATE 14 3 2 TERRAIN AND SOILS 14 3 3 LAND COVER 14 3 4 LAND USE CONTENTS 14 3 5 LANDSCAPE PATTERN DESCRIPTORS 14 4 SUMMARY 15 GLOBAL CONSERVATION 15 1 REMOTE SENSING AND THE ROAD TO A GLOBAL ECOLOGY 15 2 REMOTE SENSING AND GLOBAL CONSERVATION 15 2 1 GLOBAL PRIORITY SETTING FOR CONSERVATION 15 2 2 MONITORING CHANGES ON EARTH’S SURFACE 15 2 3 ECOLOGICAL FORECASTING 15 3 A LOOK AHEAD 15 4 SUMMARY