CLIMATE CHANGE

By Z. NOZAI

CONTENTS ENERGY AND CLIMATE CHANGE GENERAL ENERGY AND CLIMATE ENERGY AND SOCIETY ENERGY AND INDUSTRY ENERGY AND THE ECONOMY ENERGY AND THE ATMOSPHERIC ENVIRONMENT ENERGY AND THE FUTURE REFERENCES ATMOSPHERIC ENVIRONMENT AND RENEWABLE ENERGY WEATHER, CLIMATE, AND CLIMATE CHANGE ATMOSPHERE AND ITS NATURAL COMPOSITION ANTHROPOGENIC COMPOSITION OF THE ATMOSPHERE CARBON DIOXIDE (CO2) METHANE (CH4) NITROUS OXIDE (N2O) CHLORO?UOROCARBONS (CFCS) WATER VAPOR (H2O) AEROSOLS ENERGY DYNAMICS IN THE ATMOSPHERE RENEWABLE ENERGY ALTERNATIVES AND CLIMATE CHANGE SOLAR ENERGY WIND ENERGY HYDROPOWER ENERGY BIOMASS ENERGY WAVE ENERGY HYDROGEN ENERGY ENERGY UNITS SOLAR RADIATION DETERMINISTIC MODELS THE SUN ELECTROMAGNETIC (EM) SPECTRUM ENERGY BALANCE OF THE EARTH EARTH MOTION SOLAR RADIATION IRRADIATION PATH SOLAR CONSTANT SOLAR RADIATION CALCULATION ESTIMATION OF CLEAR-SKY RADIATION SOLAR PARAMETERS EARTH’S ECCENTRICITY SOLAR TIME USEFUL ANGLES 3 10 SOLAR GEOMETRY 3 10 1 CARTESIAN AND SPHERICAL COORDINATE SYSTEM 3 11 ZENITH ANGLE CALCULATION 3 12 SOLAR ENERGY CALCULATIONS 3 12 1 DAILY SOLAR ENERGY ON A HORIZONTAL SURFACE 3 12 2 SOLAR ENERGY ON AN INCLINED SURFACE 3 12 3 SUNRISE AND SUNSET HOUR ANGLES LINEAR SOLAR ENERGY MODELS SOLAR RADIATION AND DAYLIGHT MEASUREMENT INSTRUMENT ERROR AND UNCERTAINTY OPERATIONAL ERRORS DIFFUSE-IRRADIANCE DATA MEASUREMENT ERRORS STATISTICAL EVALUATION OF MODELS COEF?CIENT OF DETERMINATION (R2) COEF?CIENT OF CORRELATION (R) MEAN BIAS ERROR, MEAN OF ABSOLUTE DEVIATIONS, AND ROOT MEAN SQUARE ERROR OUTLIER ANALYSIS LINEAR MODEL ANGSTRÖM MODEL (AM) SUCCESSIVE SUBSTITUTION (SS) MODEL UNRESTRICTED MODEL (UM) PRINCIPAL COMPONENT ANALYSIS (PCA) MODEL LINEAR CLUSTER METHOD (LCM) NON-LINEAR SOLAR ENERGY MODELS CLASSIC NON-LINEAR MODELS SIMPLE POWER MODEL (SPM) ESTIMATION OF MODEL PARAMETERS COMPARISON OF DIFFERENT MODELS SOLAR IRRADIANCE POLYGON MODEL (SIPM) TRIPLE SOLAR IRRADIATION MODEL (TSIM) TRIPLE DROUGHT–SOLAR IRRADIATION MODEL (TDSIM) FUZZY LOGIC MODEL (FLM) FUZZY SETS AND LOGIC FUZZY ALGORITHM APPLICATION FOR SOLAR RADIATION GENO-FUZZY MODEL (GFM) 5 10 MONTHLY PRINCIPAL COMPONENT MODEL (MPCM) 5 11 PARABOLIC MONTHLY IRRADIATION MODEL (PMIM) 5 12 SOLAR RADIATION ESTIMATION FROM AMBIENT AIR TEMPERATURE SPATIAL SOLAR ENERGY MODELS SPATIAL VARIABILITY LINEAR INTERPOLATION GEOMETRIC WEIGHTING FUNCTION CUMULATIVE SEMIVARIOGRAM (CSV) AND WEIGHTING FUNCTION STANDARD SPATIAL DEPENDENCE FUNCTION (SDF) REGIONAL ESTIMATION CROSS-VALIDATION SPATIAL INTERPOLATION GENERAL APPLICATION SOLAR RADIATION DEVICES AND COLLECTORS SOLAR ENERGY ALTERNATIVES HEAT TRANSFER AND LOSSES CONDUCTION CONVECTION RADIATION COLLECTORS FLAT PLATE COLLECTORS TRACKING COLLECTORS FOCUSING (CONCENTRATING) COLLECTORS TILTED COLLECTORS SOLAR POND COLLECTORS PHOTO-OPTICAL COLLECTORS PHOTOVOLTAIC (PV) CELLS FUEL CELLS HYDROGEN STORAGE AND TRANSPORT SOLAR ENERGY HOME SOLAR ENERGY AND DESALINATION PLANTS 7 10 FUTURE EXPECTATIONS