SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES: MEASUREMENTS AND TESTS
CONTENTS PART ONE INTRODUCTION INTRODUCTION TO THIN-FILM PHOTOVOLTAICS INTRODUCTION THE PHOTOVOLTAIC PRINCIPLE THE SHOCKLEY–QUEISSER THEORY FROM THE IDEAL SOLAR CELL TO REAL SOLAR CELLS LIGHT ABSORPTION AND LIGHT TRAPPING CHARGE EXTRACTION NONRADIATIVE RECOMBINATION FUNCTIONAL LAYERS IN THIN-FILM SOLAR CELLS COMPARISON OF VARIOUS THIN-FILM SOLAR-CELL TYPES BASIC PROPERTIES AND TECHNOLOGY LAYER-STACKING SEQUENCE AND BAND DIAGRAM OF THE HETEROSTRUCTURE CDTE THIN-FILM SILICON SOLAR CELLS HYDROGENATED AMORPHOUS SI (A-SI:H) METASTABILITY IN A-SI:H: THE STAEBLER–WRONSKI EFFECT HYDROGENATED MICROCRYSTALLINE SILICON (MC-SI:H) MICROMORPH TANDEM SOLAR CELLS CONCLUSIONS REFERENCES PART TWO DEVICE CHARACTERIZATION FUNDAMENTAL ELECTRICAL CHARACTERIZATION OF THIN-FILM SOLAR CELLS CURRENT/VOLTAGE CURVES SHAPE OF CURRENT/VOLTAGE CURVES AND THEIR DESCRIPTION WITH EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT MODELS MEASUREMENT OF CURRENT/VOLTAGE CURVES DETERMINATION OF IDEALITY FACTORS AND SERIES RESISTANCES TEMPERATURE-DEPENDENT CURRENT/VOLTAGE MEASUREMENTS QUANTUM EF?CIENCY MEASUREMENTS DE?NITION MEASUREMENT PRINCIPLE AND CALIBRATION QUANTUM EF?CIENCY MEASUREMENTS OF TANDEM SOLAR CELLS DIFFERENTIAL SPECTRAL RESPONSE (DSR) MEASUREMENTS INTERPRETATION OF QUANTUM EF?CIENCY MEASUREMENTS IN THIN-FILM SILICON SOLAR CELLS ELECTROLUMINESCENCE ANALYSIS OF SOLAR CELLS AND SOLAR MODULES BASICS SPECTRALLY RESOLVED ELECTROLUMINESCENCE SPATIALLY RESOLVED ELECTROLUMINESCENCE OF C-SI SOLAR CELLS ELECTROLUMINESCENCE IMAGING OF CU(IN,GA)SE2 THIN-FILM MODULES MODELING OF SPATIALLY RESOLVED ELECTROLUMINESCENCE CAPACITANCE SPECTROSCOPY OF THIN-FILM SOLAR CELLS ADMITTANCE BASICS SAMPLE REQUIREMENTS INSTRUMENTATION CAPACITANCE–VOLTAGE PRO?LING AND THE DEPLETION APPROXIMATION ADMITTANCE RESPONSE OF DEEP STATES THE IN?UENCE OF DEEP STATES ON CV PRO?LES DLTS DLTS OF THIN-FILM PV DEVICES ADMITTANCE SPECTROSCOPY DRIVE LEVEL CAPACITANCE PRO?LING PHOTOCAPACITANCE THE MEYER–NELDEL RULE SPATIAL INHOMOGENEITIES AND INTERFACE STATES METASTABILITY PART THREE MATERIALS CHARACTERIZATION CHARACTERIZING THE LIGHT-TRAPPING PROPERTIES OF TEXTURED SURFACES WITH SCANNING NEAR-FIELD OPTICAL MICROSCOPY HOW DOES A SCANNING NEAR-FIELD OPTICAL MICROSCOPE WORK? LIGHT SCATTERING IN THE WAVE PICTURE THE ROLE OF EVANESCENT MODES FOR LIGHT TRAPPING ANALYSIS OF SCANNING NEAR-FIELD OPTICAL MICROSCOPY IMAGES BY FAST FOURIER TRANSFORMATION HOW TO EXTRACT FAR-FIELD SCATTERING PROPERTIES BY SCANNING NEAR-FIELD OPTICAL MICROSCOPY? CONCLUSION SPECTROSCOPIC ELLIPSOMETRY THEORY POLARIZED LIGHT RE?ECTION FROM A SINGLE INTERFACE ELLIPSOMETRY INSTRUMENTATION ROTATING ANALYZER SE FOR EX-SITU APPLICATIONS ROTATING COMPENSATOR SE FOR REAL-TIME APPLICATIONS DATA ANALYSIS EXACT NUMERICAL INVERSION LEAST-SQUARES REGRESSION VIRTUAL INTERFACE ANALYSIS RTSE OF THIN FILM PHOTOVOLTAICS THIN SI:H SUMMARY AND FUTURE DE?NITION OF VARIABLES PHOTOLUMINESCENCE ANALYSIS OF THIN-FILM SOLAR CELLS EXPERIMENTAL ISSUES DESIGN OF THE OPTICAL SYSTEM CALIBRATION CRYOSTAT BASIC TRANSITIONS EXCITONS FREE-BOUND TRANSITIONS DONOR–ACCEPTOR PAIR RECOMBINATION POTENTIAL FLUCTUATIONS BAND–BAND TRANSITIONS CASE STUDIES LOW-TEMPERATURE PHOTOLUMINESCENCE ANALYSIS ROOM-TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENTS: ESTIMATION OF VOC FROM PL YIELD SPATIALLY RESOLVED PHOTOLUMINESCENCE: ABSORBER INHOMOGENEITIES STEADY-STATE PHOTOCARRIER GRATING METHOD BASIC ANALYSIS OF SSPG AND PHOTOCURRENT RESPONSE OPTICAL MODEL SEMICONDUCTOR EQUATIONS DIFFUSION LENGTH: RITTER–ZELDOV–WEISER ANALYSIS EVALUATION SCHEMES MORE DETAILED ANALYSES IN?UENCE OF THE DARK CONDUCTIVITY IN?UENCE OF TRAPS MINORITY-CARRIER AND MAJORITY-CARRIER MOBILITY-LIFETIME PRODUCTS EXPERIMENTAL SETUP RESULTS HYDROGENATED AMORPHOUS SILICON TEMPERATURE AND GENERATION RATE DEPENDENCE SURFACE RECOMBINATION ELECTRIC-FIELD IN?UENCE FERMI-LEVEL POSITION DEFECTS AND LIGHT-INDUCED DEGRADATION THIN-FILM CHARACTERIZATION AND DEPOSITION METHODS HYDROGENATED AMORPHOUS SILICON ALLOYS HYDROGENATED MICROCRYSTALLINE SILICON HYDROGENATED MICROCRYSTALLINE GERMANIUM OTHER THIN-FILM SEMICONDUCTORS DENSITY-OF-STATES DETERMINATION SUMMARY TIME-OF-FLIGHT ANALYSIS FUNDAMENTALS OF TOF MEASUREMENTS ANOMALOUS DISPERSION BASIC ELECTRONIC PROPERTIES OF THIN-FILM SEMICONDUCTORS EXPERIMENTAL DETAILS ACCOMPANYING MEASUREMENTS CAPACITANCE COLLECTION BUILT-IN FIELD CURRENT DECAY CHARGE TRANSIENT POSSIBLE PROBLEMS DIELECTRIC RELAXATION INHOMOGENEOUS FIELD ANALYSIS OF TOF RESULTS MULTIPLE TRAPPING OVERVIEW OF THE PROCESSES ENERGETIC DISTRIBUTION OF CARRIERS TIME DEPENDENCE OF ELECTRICAL CURRENT SPATIAL CHARGE DISTRIBUTION TEMPERATURE DEPENDENCE DENSITY OF STATES WIDTHS OF BAND TAILS PROBING OF DEEP STATES ELECTRON-SPIN RESONANCE (ESR) IN HYDROGENATED AMORPHOUS SILICON (A-SI:H) BASICS OF ESR HOW TO MEASURE ESR ESR SETUP AND MEASUREMENT PROCEDURE PULSE ESR SAMPLE PREPARATION THE G TENSOR AND HYPER?NE INTERACTION IN DISORDERED SOLIDS ZEEMAN ENERGY AND G TENSOR HYPER?NE INTERACTION LINE-BROADENING MECHANISMS DISCUSSION OF SELECTED RESULTS ESR ON UNDOPED A-SI:H LESR ON UNDOPED A-SI:H ESR ON DOPED A-SI:H LIGHT-INDUCED DEGRADATION IN A-SI:H EXCESS CHARGE-CARRIER RECOMBINATION AND WEAK SI–SI BOND BREAKING SI–H BOND DISSOCIATION AND HYDROGEN COLLISION MODEL TRANSFORMATION OF EXISTING NONPARAMAGNETIC CHARGED DANGLING-BOND DEFECTS ALTERNATIVE ESR DETECTION HISTORY OF EDMR EDMR ON A-SI:H SOLAR CELLS CONCLUDING REMARKS SCANNING PROBE MICROSCOPY ON INORGANIC THIN FILMS FOR SOLAR CELLS EXPERIMENTAL BACKGROUND ATOMIC FORCE MICROSCOPY CONTACT MODE NONCONTACT MODE CONDUCTIVE ATOMIC FORCE MICROSCOPY SCANNING CAPACITANCE MICROSCOPY KELVIN PROBE FORCE MICROSCOPY SCANNING TUNNELING MICROSCOPY ISSUES OF SAMPLE PREPARATION SELECTED APPLICATIONS SURFACE HOMOGENEITY GRAIN BOUNDARIES CROSS-SECTIONAL STUDIES ELECTRON MICROSCOPY ON THIN FILMS FOR SOLAR CELLS SCANNING ELECTRON MICROSCOPY IMAGING TECHNIQUES ELECTRON BACKSCATTER DIFFRACTION ENERGY-DISPERSIVE AND WAVELENGTH-DISPERSIVE X-RAY SPECTROMETRY ELECTRON-BEAM-INDUCED CURRENT MEASUREMENTS ELECTRON-BEAM GENERATION CHARGE-CARRIER COLLECTION IN A SOLAR CELL EXPERIMENTAL SETUPS CRITICAL ISSUES CATHODOLUMINESCENCE EXAMPLE: SPECTRUM IMAGING OF CDTE THIN FILMS SCANNING PROBE AND SCANNING-PROBE MICROSCOPY INTEGRATED PLATFORM COMBINATION OF VARIOUS SCANNING ELECTRON MICROSCOPY TECHNIQUES TRANSMISSION ELECTRON MICROSCOPY BRIGHT-FIELD AND DARK-FIELD IMAGING IN THE CONVENTIONAL MODE HIGH-RESOLUTION IMAGING IN THE CONVENTIONAL MODE IMAGING IN THE SCANNING MODE USING AN ANNULAR DARK-FIELD DETECTOR ELECTRON DIFFRACTION SELECTED-AREA ELECTRON DIFFRACTION IN THE CONVENTIONAL MODE CONVERGENT-BEAM ELECTRON DIFFRACTION IN THE SCANNING MODE ELECTRON ENERGY-LOSS SPECTROMETRY AND ENERGY-FILTERED TRANSMISSION ELECTRON MICROSCOPY SCATTERING THEORY EXPERIMENT AND SETUP THE ENERGY-LOSS SPECTRUM APPLICATIONS AND COMPARISON WITH EDX SPECTROSCOPY OFF-AXIS AND IN-LINE ELECTRON HOLOGRAPHY SAMPLE PREPARATION TECHNIQUES PREPARATION FOR SCANNING ELECTRON MICROSCOPY PREPARATION FOR TRANSMISSION ELECTRON MICROSCOPY X-RAY AND NEUTRON DIFFRACTION ON MATERIALS FOR THIN-FILM SOLAR CELLS DIFFRACTION OF X-RAYS AND NEUTRON BY MATTER NEUTRON POWDER DIFFRACTION OF ABSORBER MATERIALS FOR THIN-FILM SOLAR CELLS EXAMPLE: INVESTIGATION OF INTRINSIC POINT DEFECTS IN NONSTOICHIOMETRIC CUINSE2 BY NEUTRON DIFFRACTION GRAZING INCIDENCE X-RAY DIFFRACTION (GIXRD) ENERGY DISPERSIVE X-RAY DIFFRACTION (EDXRD) RAMAN SPECTROSCOPY ON THIN FILMS FOR SOLAR CELLS FUNDAMENTALS OF RAMAN SPECTROSCOPY VIBRATIONAL MODES IN CRYSTALLINE MATERIALS EXPERIMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS LASER SOURCE LIGHT COLLECTION AND FOCUSING OPTICS SPECTROSCOPIC MODULE CHARACTERIZATION OF THIN-FILM PHOTOVOLTAIC MATERIALS IDENTI?CATION OF CRYSTALLINE STRUCTURES EVALUATION OF FILM CRYSTALLINITY CHEMICAL ANALYSIS OF SEMICONDUCTING ALLOYS NANOCRYSTALLINE AND AMORPHOUS MATERIALS EVALUATION OF STRESS SOFT X-RAY AND ELECTRON SPECTROSCOPY: A UNIQUE ‘‘TOOL CHEST’’ TO CHARACTERIZE THE CHEMICAL AND ELECTRONIC PROPERTIES OF SURFACES AND INTERFACES CHARACTERIZATION TECHNIQUES PROBING THE CHEMICAL SURFACE STRUCTURE: IMPACT OF WET CHEMICAL TREATMENTS ON THIN-FILM SOLAR CELL ABSORBERS PROBING THE ELECTRONIC SURFACE AND INTERFACE STRUCTURE: BAND ALIGNMENT IN THIN-FILM SOLAR CELLS ELEMENTAL DISTRIBUTION PROFILING OF THIN FILMS FOR SOLAR CELLS GLOW DISCHARGE-OPTICAL EMISSION (GD-OES) AND GLOW DISCHARGE-MASS SPECTROSCOPY (GD-MS) PRINCIPLES PLASMA SOURCES PLASMA CONDITIONS DETECTION OF OPTICAL EMISSION MASS SPECTROSCOPY QUANTI?CATION GLOW DISCHARGE-OPTICAL EMISSION SPECTROSCOPY GLOW DISCHARGE-MASS SPECTROSCOPY APPLICATIONS SECONDARY ION MASS SPECTROMETRY (SIMS) PRINCIPLE OF THE METHOD APPLICATIONS FOR SOLAR CELLS AUGER ELECTRON SPECTROSCOPY (AES) THE AUGER PROCESS AUGER ELECTRON SIGNALS AUGER ELECTRON SIGNAL INTENSITIES AND QUANTI?CATION APPLICATION X-RAY PHOTOELECTRON SPECTROSCOPY (XPS) THEORETICAL PRINCIPLES APPLICATION TO THIN FILM SOLAR CELLS ENERGY-DISPERSIVE X-RAY ANALYSIS ON FRACTURED CROSS SECTIONS BASICS ON ENERGY-DISPERSIVE X-RAY SPECTROMETRY IN A SCANNING ELECTRON MICROSCOPE SPATIAL RESOLUTIONS HYDROGEN EFFUSION EXPERIMENTS IDENTI?CATION OF RATE-LIMITING PROCESS ANALYSIS OF DIFFUSING HYDROGEN SPECIES FROM HYDROGEN EFFUSION MEASUREMENTS ANALYSIS OF H2 SURFACE DESORPTION ANALYSIS OF DIFFUSION-LIMITED EFFUSION ANALYSIS OF EFFUSION SPECTRA IN TERMS OF HYDROGEN DENSITY OF STATES ANALYSIS OF FILM MICROSTRUCTURE BY EFFUSION OF IMPLANTED RARE GASES AMORPHOUS SILICON AND GERMANIUM FILMS MATERIAL DENSITY VERSUS ANNEALING AND HYDROGEN CONTENT EFFECT OF DOPING ON H EFFUSION AMORPHOUS SILICON ALLOYS: SI-C MICROCRYSTALLINE SILICON ZINC OXIDE FILMS COMPARISON WITH OTHER EXPERIMENTS PART FOUR MATERIALS AND DEVICE MODELING AB-INITIO MODELING OF DEFECTS IN SEMICONDUCTORS DENSITY FUNCTIONAL THEORY AND METHODS BASIS SETS FUNCTIONALS FOR EXCHANGE AND CORRELATION LOCAL APPROXIMATIONS FUNCTIONALS BEYOND LDA/GGA METHODS BEYOND DFT FROM TOTAL ENERGIES TO MATERIALS’ PROPERTIES AB-INITIO CHARACTERIZATION OF POINT DEFECTS THERMODYNAMICS OF POINT DEFECTS FORMATION ENERGIES FROM AB-INITIO CALCULATIONS CASE STUDY: POINT DEFECTS IN ZNO ONE-DIMENSIONAL ELECTRO-OPTICAL SIMULATIONS OF THIN-FILM SOLAR CELLS FUNDAMENTALS MODELING HYDROGENATED AMORPHOUS AND MICROCRYSTALLINE SILICON DENSITY OF STATES AND TRANSPORT HYDROGENATED AMORPHOUS SILICON DENSITY OF STATES AND TRANSPORT HYDROGENATED MICROCRYSTALLINE SILICON MODELING RECOMBINATION IN A-SI:H AND MC-SI: H RECOMBINATION STATISTICS FOR SINGLE-ELECTRON STATES: SHOCKLEY–READ–HALL RECOMBINATION RECOMBINATION STATISTICS FOR AMPHOTERIC STATES MODELING CU(IN,GA)SE2 SOLAR CELLS GRADED BAND-GAP DEVICES ISSUES WHEN MODELING GRADED BAND-GAP DEVICES EXAMPLE MODELING OF CDTE SOLAR CELLS BASELINE THE WB – NAC (BARRIER–DOPING) TRADE-OFF C–V ANALYSIS AS AN INTERPRETATION AID OF I–V CURVES OPTICAL MODELING OF THIN SOLAR CELLS COHERENT MODELING OF FLAT INTERFACES MODELING OF ROUGH INTERFACES TOOLS AFORS-HET AMPS-1D ASA PC1D SCAPS SC-SIMUL TWO- AND THREE-DIMENSIONAL ELECTRONIC MODELING OF THIN-FILM SOLAR CELLS METHODS EQUIVALENT-CIRCUIT MODELING SOLVING SEMICONDUCTOR EQUATIONS CREATING A SEMICONDUCTOR MODEL EXAMPLES EQUIVALENT-CIRCUIT MODELING EXAMPLES SEMICONDUCTOR MODELING EXAMPLES