PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR ELECTRIC RAILWAY OPERATIONS AND MAINTENANCE
1 Overview of energy systems for electric and hybrid vehicles 1 11 What are EVs and HVs? 1 12 Benefits 5 13 Challenges 9 131 Pure electric vehicles 9 132 Hybrid electric vehicles 11 14 Multidisciplinary technologies 11 15 Energy system technologies 13 151 Energy source systems 13 152 Battery charging and management systems 18 153 Vehicle-to-X energy systems 22 Acknowledgements 26 References 26 2 Overview of electrochemical energy sources for electric vehicles 31 21 Types of electrochemical cells for electric vehicles 31 211 Basic differences among electrochemical cells 32 212 Specific energy of electrochemical cells 33 22 Capacitors 34 221 Double layer capacitor 35 222 Pseudocapacitor 36 223 Hybrid capacitors 37 23 Batteries 38 231 Lead-acid battery 40 232 Nickel-based batteries 41 233 Ambient-temperature lithium batteries 43 24 High-temperature batteries 45 241 Sodium-beta batteries 45 242 High-temperature lithium batteries 46 25 Metal/air batteries 47 26 Fuel cells 48 261 Alkaline fuel cell 49 262 Phosphoric acid fuel cell 51 263 Proton exchange membrane fuel cell 52 264 Molten carbonate fuel cell 54 265 Solid oxide fuel cell 55 266 Direct methanol fuel cell 56 27 Flow batteries 59 28 Characteristics and EV applications 60 281 Ultracapacitor characteristics 60 282 Ultracapacitors for EV applications 61 283 Battery characteristics 61 284 Batteries for EV applications 63 285 Fuel cell characteristics 63 286 Fuel cells for EV applications 64 29 Trend 65 References 66 3 Ultrahigh-speed flywheel energy storage for electric vehicles 69 31 Flywheel energy storage 69 311 FESSs as the main power source 71 312 FESSs as auxiliary energy storage 72 32 System configuration 74 321 Flywheel 74 322 Bearing 76 323 Motor/generator 76 324 Power converter 77 325 Enclosure 77 33 Electric machines 78 331 Induction machine 78 332 PMBL machines 79 333 Switched reluctance machine 81 334 Synchronous reluctance machine 82 335 Homopolar machine 82 34 Control strategies 87 341 Motor/generator control 87 342 FESS control 89 343 Charge and discharge control 91 35 Summary 93 Acknowledgements 93 References 94 4 Hybridization of energy sources for electric and hybrid vehicles 97 41 Introduction 97 42 Characteristics of engine and electrical powertrains 98 421 Energy efficiency improvement in HEVs 100 422 Drivetrain design of BEVs and HEVs 101 43 Energy sources for EV and HEV applications 102 431 Batteries 103 432 Fuel cells 109 433 Ultracapacitors 112 434 Ultrahigh-speed flywheels 112 44 Hybridization of energy sources in EVs and HEVs 113 441 Hybridization of drivetrains in HEVs 113 442 Hybridization of energy sources in EVs 123 45 Conclusions 126 References 127 5 Solar energy harvesting for electric vehicles 129 51 How to harvest solar energy? 129 511 Brief history and types of PV technology 130 512 Harvesting solar energy for EVs 131 52 PV cell technologies 132 521 Crystalline silicon 133 522 a-Si 135 523 Other thin-film PV cells 137 53 Electrical characteristics and performance of PV cells 138 531 Does PV technology matter? 138 532 Energy yield calculations 140 533 Power management for EVs 141 534 Incorporating solar energy into PMS 144 535 Harvesting solar energy for charging station 144 54 Case studies 146 541 PV module as roof for electrical cart 146 542 PV modules mounted on roof of ICEV 149 55 Conclusions 151 Acknowledgements 151 References 151 6 On-board electromagnetic energy regeneration for electric vehicles 155 61 Introduction 155 611 Vehicle energy 155 612 Vehicle dynamics 157 62 Electromagnetic energy regeneration from braking 159 621 Electric machines and power electronic drives 159 622 System configuration for braking energy recovery 163 623 Modelling of braking energy recovery 165 624 Control strategies for regenerative braking 166 63 Electromagnetic energy regeneration from suspension system 168 631 Suspension systems of vehicles 168 632 System configuration of shock absorbers 169 633 Energy harvester based on rotational electric machine 170 634 Energy harvester based on linear electric machine 171 635 Modelling of suspension systems 173 636 Control strategies for regenerative suspension 177 64 Summary 181 Acknowledgements 182 References 182 7 On-board thermoelectric energy recovery for hybrid electric vehicles 187 71 TEG 187 72 Waste heat recovery for HEVs 190 73 Thermoelectric energy system 195 731 System configuration with series connection 195 732 System configuration with parallel connection 196 74 MPPT 198 741 MPPT for thermoelectric energy system with series connection 198 742 MPPT for thermoelectric energy system with parallel connection 199 75 PCC 202 76 Experimental implementation 205 References 208 8 Review of battery charging strategies for electric vehicles 211 81 Introduction 211 82 Charging algorithms for a single battery 213 821 Basic terms for charging performance evaluation and characterization 214 822 CC charging for NiCd/NiMH batteries 217 823 CV charging for lead acid batteries 218 824 CC/CV charging for lead acid and Li-ion batteries 220 825 MSCC charging for lead acid, NiMH and Li-ion batteries 226 826 TSCC/CV charging for Li-ion batteries 230 827 CVCC/CV charging for Li-ion batteries 231 828 Pulse charging for lead acid, NiCd/NiMH and Li-ion batteries 232 829 Charging termination techniques 235 8210 Comparisons of charging algorithms and new development 236 83 Balancing methods for battery pack charging 238 831 Battery sorting 239 832 Overcharge for balancing 244 833 Passive balancing 244 834 Active balancing 246 84 Charging infrastructure 250 841 Battery chargers 250 842 Home charging 253 843 Public charging 253 85 Conclusions 254 Acknowledgements 255 References 255 9 Wireless power transfer systems for electric vehicles 261 91 Introduction 261 92 Tesla’s early work of nonradiative wireless power transfer 263 93 Basic principles for wireless power transfer using near-field coupling technique 266 931 Basic circuit model 266 932 Power flow analysis 268 94 Magnetic resonant 269 941 Compensation in secondary 270 942 Compensation in primary 272 95 Influence of the load resistance 276 951 Series-compensated secondary 277 952 Parallel-compensated secondary 277 96 Transmission distance 279 97 Transmission efficiency and energy efficiency of the system 280 98 Transducer power gain and maximum power transfer of the system 282 99 Frequency-splitting phenomenon 283 910 Wireless systems with four coils 284 911 Conclusion 285 References 286 10 Move-and-charge technology for electric vehicles 289 101 Introduction to the wireless power transfer technologies for EVs 289 102 Basic principles of WPTSs for RPEV 290 1021 Configuration of the WPTS 290 1022 Fundamental principles of the IPTS 292 1023 Discussions on the requirements of IPTS 293 1024 Important design issues of the IPTS 294 103 Advent of RPEV 296 1031 Origin of the RPEV: ‘‘Transformers for electric railways’’ 296 1032 The first development of RPEVs 297 104 Development of KAIST OLEVs 298 1041 1G OLEV 300 1042 2G OLEV 300 1043 3G OLEV 303 1044 4G OLEV 304 1045 5G OLEV 307 105 Generalized active EMF cancellation methods 307 106 Research trends of other RPEVs 311 1061 The Auckland University Research Team 311 1062 The Bombardier Research Team 313 1063 The Endesa Research Team 315 1064 The INTIS Research Team 315 107 Conclusion 316 References 316 11 Energy cryptography for wireless charging of electric vehicles 319 111 Wireless power transfer 319 1111 Acoustic 319 1112 Optical 320 1113 Microwave 321 1114 Capacitive 321 1115 Inductive 322 112 Wireless charging for EVs 325 1121 Inductive resonant charging 325 1122 Dynamic charging 326 113 Principle of energy cryptography 333 114 Realization of energy cryptography 334 1141 Generation of security key 334 1142 Adjustment of impedance 337 115 System control of energy cryptography 339 116 Experimentation of energy cryptography 340 117 Conclusion 345 Acknowledgements 346 References 346 12 Review of battery management systems for electric vehicles 349 121 What is BMS? 349 122 BMS representation 350 1221 Battery module 350 1222 Measurement unit block 351 1223 Battery equalization: balancing unit 351 1224 MCU: estimation unit 352 1225 Display unit 352 1226 Fault warning block 352 123 Data management and network 352 1231 CAN-bus 352 1232 LIN 353 1233 TCP/IP 353 1234 Wireless and PLC 353 124 SoC and SoH 354 1241 SoC 354 1242 SoH 355 1243 Estimation of SoC 355 125 Battery balancing 357 1251 Resistive balancing 358 1252 Classical switched-mode active balancing 358 1253 Switched-capacitor 360 1254 SP balancing 360 1255 Multi-winding balancing 361 1256 Tier 1 balancing switched-capacitor 363 1257 Tier 2 balancing switched-capacitor 363 1258 Other switched-capacitor balancing 364 1259 Resonant version 366 12510 Summary of balancing technology 367 126 BMS standard 368 127 Conclusion 369 Acknowledgements 369 References 370 13 Integration of energy and information in electric vehicle systems 373 131 Introduction 373 132 Renaissance scientists and engineers 374 133 Engineering philosophy of electric vehicles 374 134 Rapid adoption of new electric vehicles 375 135 Comparison of information and energy 376 136 Relationship between energy and information 377 137 Utilization of energy and information for continuous development 380 138 Smart charging 382 1381 Background information 382 1382 Stakeholders 384 1383 Energy flow and information flow for smart charging 387 1384 Challenges for smart charging 388 139 Conclusions 389 References 390 14 Optimal scheduling with vehicle-to-grid ancillary services 395 141 Overview 395 1411 Electric vehicles and ancillary services 395 1412 Current research 396 142 System architecture 397 1421 Operator-aggregator protocol 400 1422 Aggregator-aggregator protocol 401 1423 Aggregator-EV protocol 402 1424 EV requirements 403 143 System model and problem formulation 404 1431 Control objective for V2G regulation service 404 1432 Models and constraints 405 1433 Formulation of forecast-based scheduling 406 1434 Formulation of online scheduling 409 144 Decentralized scheduling algorithm 413 1441 Forecast-based scheduling 417 1442 Online scheduling 419 145 Case studies 419 1451 V2G scheduling algorithms 419 1452 Performance metric 420 1453 Simulation setup 420 1454 Simulation results 421 1455 Convergence rates 426 146 Conclusion 427 Acknowledgements 428 References 428 15 Vehicle-to-home, vehicle-to-vehicle, and vehicle-to-grid energy systems 431 151 Introduction 431 152 Vehicle-to-home 438 1521 PHEV control strategy for V2H applications 438 1522 V2H with demand response 439 153 Vehicle-to-vehicle 440 1531 Concept and structure of EV aggregator 442 1532 Control method of EV aggregator for dispatching a fleet of EVs 442 154 Vehicle-to-grid 447 1541 Planning of V2G infrastructure in the smart grid 447 1542 Ancillary services provided by V2G 449 1543 Cost-emission optimization 456 155 Conclusion 458 References 459 16 Vehicle-to-grid power interface 461 161 Introduction 461 162 Two-stage power interface 463 1621 AC/DC rectifiers 463 1622 DC/DC converters 471 163 Three-stage power interface 479 164 Integrated power interface for multiple DC levels 482 References 484