THE DISTRIBUTION OF POWER FROM CENTRAL STATIONS
1 FUNDAMENTALS OF POWER SYSTEMS 1–13 1 1 SINGLE-PHASE TRANSMISSION 2 1 2 THE 3-PHASE TRANSMISSION 6 1 3 COMPLEX POWER 7 1 4 LOAD CHARACTERISTICS 7 1 5 THE PER UNIT SYSTEM 9 2 LINE CONSTANT CALCULATIONS 15–38 2 1 MAGNETIC FLUX DENSITY 16 2 2 INDUCTORS AND INDUCTANCE 18 2 3 MAGNETIC FIELD INTENSITY DUE TO A LONG CURRENT CARRYING CONDUCTOR 18 2 4 INDUCTANCE OF TWO-WIRE TRANSMISSION LINE 19 2 5 FLUX LINKAGES OF ONE CONDUCTOR IN A GROUP OF CONDUCTORS 22 2 6 INDUCTANCE OF 3-? UNSYMMETRICALLY SPACED TRANSMISSION LINE 24 2 7 TRANSPOSITION OF POWER LINES 25 2 8 COMPOSITE CONDUCTORS 26 2 9 INDUCTANCE OF COMPOSITE CONDUCTORS 27 2 10 INDUCTANCE OF DOUBLE CIRCUIT 3-? LINE 31 2 11 CONCEPT OF GEOMETRIC MEAN DISTANCE 34 2 12 BUNDLED CONDUCTORS 35 2 13 SKIN AND PROXIMITY EFFECT 36 3 CAPACITANCE OF TRANSMISSION LINES 39–57 3 1 ELECTRIC FIELD OF AN INFINITE LINE OF CHARGE 40 3 2 POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE BETWEEN TWO POINTS DUE TO A LINE CHARGE 42 3 3 TWO INFINITE LINES OF CHARGE 42 3 4 CAPACITANCE OF A 1-? TRANSMISSION LINE 44 3 5 CAPACITANCE OF A 3-PHASE, UNSYMMETRICALLY SPACED TRANSMISSION LINE 47 3 6 CAPACITANCE OF A DOUBLE CIRCUIT LINE 49 3 7 EFFECT OF EARTH ON THE CAPACITANCE OF CONDUCTORS 53 4 PERFORMANCE OF LINES 59–97 4 1 REPRESENTATION OF LINES 60 4 2 SHORT TRANSMISSION LINES 62 4 3 MEDIUM LENGTH LINES 68 4 4 LONG TRANSMISSION LINES 75 4 5 ABCD CONSTANTS 86 4 6 FERRANTI-EFFECT 94 5 HIGH VOLTAGE D C TRANSMISSION 99–136 5 1 RECTIFICATION 101 5 2 THE 3-PHASE BRIDGE RECTIFIER OR GRAETZ CIRCUIT 105 5 3 INVERSION 109 5 4 KINDS OF D C LINKS 113 5 5 PARALLEL AND SERIES CONNECTION OF THYRISTORS 114 5 6 POWER FLOW IN HVDC TRANSMISSION SYSTEM 114 5 7 CONSTANT IGNITION ANGLE ? CONTROL 117 5 8 CONSTANT EXTINCTION ANGLE ? CONTROL 118 5 9 CONSTANT CURRENT CONTROL 119 5 10 ACTUAL CONTROL CHARACTERISTICS 120 5 11 FREQUENCY CONTROL 124 5 12 REACTIVE VAR REQUIREMENTS OF HVDC CONVERTERS 125 5 13 PARALLEL OPERATION OF D C LINK WITH AN A C NETWORK 128 5 14 GROUND RETURN 129 5 15 CIRCUIT BREAKING 130 5 16 ADVANTAGES OF D C TRANSMISSION 131 5 17 DISADVANTAGES 134 5 18 CABLES 134 5 19 ECONOMIC DISTANCES FOR D C TRANSMISSION 134 6 CORONA 137–151 6 1 CRITICAL DISRUPTIVE VOLTAGE 139 6 2 CORONA LOSS 143 6 3 LINE DESIGN BASED ON CORONA 147 6 4 DISADVANTAGES OF CORONA 148 6 5 RADIO INTERFERENCE 148 6 6 INDUCTIVE INTERFERENCE BETWEEN POWER AND COMMUNICATION LINES 148 7 MECHANICAL DESIGN OF TRANSMISSION LINES 153–171 7 1 THE CATENARY CURVE 154 7 2 SAG TENSION CALCULATIONS 156 7 3 SUPPORTS AT DIFFERENT LEVELS 163 7 4 STRINGING CHART 166 7 5 SAG TEMPLATE 166 7 6 EQUIVALENT SPAN 167 7 7 STRINGING OF CONDUCTORS 168 7 8 VIBRATION AND VIBRATION DAMPERS 168 8 OVERHEAD LINE INSULATORS 173–187 8 1 TYPES OF INSULATORS 175 8 2 POTENTIAL DISTRIBUTION OVER A STRING OF SUSPENSION INSULATORS 177 8 3 METHODS OF EQUALISING THE POTENTIAL 181 9 INSULATED CABLES 189–223 9 1 THE INSULATION 190 9 2 EXTRA HIGH VOLTAGE CABLES 193 9 3 GRADING OF CABLES 196 9 4 INSULATION RESISTANCE OF A CABLE 203 9 5 CAPACITANCE OF A SINGLE CORE CABLE 204 9 6 HEATING OF CABLES 207 9 7 CURRENT RATING OF A CABLE 214 9 8 OVERHEAD LINES VERSUS UNDERGROUND CABLES 218 9 9 TYPES OF CABLES 218 10 VOLTAGE CONTROL 225–246 10 1 METHODS OF VOLTAGE CONTROL 228 10 2 DETERMINATION OF SYNCHRONOUS PHASE MODIFIER CAPACITY 237 10 3 SENDING END POWER CIRCLE DIAGRAM 243 11 NEUTRAL GROUNDING 247–256 11 1 EFFECTIVELY GROUNDED SYSTEM 248 11 2 UNGROUNDED SYSTEM 249 11 3 RESONANT GROUNDING 249 11 4 METHODS OF NEUTRAL GROUNDING 252 11 5 GENERATOR NEUTRAL BREAKER 255 11 6 GROUNDING PRACTICE 256 12 TRANSIENTS IN POWER SYSTEMS 257–295 12 1 TRANSIENTS IN SIMPLE CIRCUITS 259 12 2 3-PHASE SUDDEN SHORT CIRCUIT OF AN ALTERNATOR 265 12 3 THE RESTRIKING VOLTAGE AFTER REMOVAL OF SHORT CIRCUIT 267 12 4 TRAVELLING WAVES ON TRANSMISSION LINES 269 12 5 ATTENUATION OF TRAVELLING WAVES 284 12 6 CAPACITANCE SWITCHING 286 12 7 OVERVOLTAGE DUE TO ARCING GROUND 288 12 8 LIGHTNING PHENOMENON 289 12 9 LINE DESIGN BASED ON LIGHTNING 293 13 SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS AND FAULT CALCULATIONS 297–356 13 1 3-PHASE SYSTEMS 298 13 2 SIGNIFICANCE OF POSITIVE, NEGATIVE AND ZERO SEQUENCE COMPONENTS 299 13 3 AVERAGE 3-PHASE POWER IN TERMS OF SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS 303 13 4 SEQUENCE IMPEDANCES 305 13 5 FAULT CALCULATIONS 308 13 6 SEQUENCE NETWORK EQUATIONS 310 13 7 SINGLE LINE-TO-GROUND FAULT 312 13 8 LINE-TO-GROUND FAULT WITH ZF 325 13 9 SEQUENCE NETWORKS 329 13 10 FAULTS ON POWER SYSTEMS 332 13 11 PHASE SHIFT ?-Y TRANSFORMERS 333 13 12 REACTORS 338 13 13 CONCEPT OF SHORT-CIRCUIT CAPACITY OF A BUS 340 14 PROTECTIVE RELAYS 357–476 14 1 SOME DEFINITIONS 359 14 2 FUNCTIONAL CHARACTERISTICS OF A PROTECTIVE RELAY 360 14 3 OPERATING PRINCIPLES OF RELAYS 361 14 4 TORQUE PRODUCTION IN AN INDUCTION RELAY 362 14 5 OVER-CURRENT RELAYS 364 14 6 DIRECTIONAL OVERCURRENT RELAYS 366 14 7 THE UNIVERSAL RELAY TORQUE EQUATION 370 14 8 DIFFERENTIAL RELAYS 377 14 9 FEEDER PROTECTION 381 14 10 DISTANCE PROTECTION 387 14 11 GENERATOR PROTECTION 392 14 12 PROTECTION OF TRANSFORMERS 401 14 13 TRANSLAY RELAY 408 14 14 CARRIER CURRENT PROTECTION 410 14 15 COMPARATORS 413 14 16 STATIC RELAYS 428 14 17 DIGITAL PROTECTION 453 14 18 FUSES AND HRC FUSES 461 14 19 LINEAR COUPLERS 465 14 19 1 CURRENT TRANSFORMERS 465 14 19 2 POTENTIAL TRANSFORMERS 470 15 CIRCUIT BREAKERS 477–512 15 1 ARC IN OIL 479 15 2 ARC-INTERRUPTION THEORIES 481 15 3 CURRENT CHOPPING 485 15 4 OIL CIRCUIT BREAKER 488 15 5 AIR CIRCUIT BREAKERS 492 15 6 AIR BLAST CIRCUIT BREAKERS 494 15 7 VACUUM CIRCUIT BREAKERS 496 15 8 SULPHUR HEXAFLUORIDE (SF6) CIRCUIT BREAKERS 500 15 9 RATING OF CIRCUIT BREAKERS 502 15 10 TESTING OF CIRCUIT BREAKERS 505 15 11 AUTORECLOSING 510 16 INSULATION COORDINATION AND OVERVOLTAGE PROTECTION 513–532 16 1 VOLT-TIME CURVE 514 16 2 OVERVOLTAGE PROTECTION 518 16 3 GROUND WIRES 526 16 4 SURGE PROTECTION OF ROTATING MACHINE 531 17 POWER SYSTEM SYNCHRONOUS STABILITY 533–589 17 1 THE POWER FLOW 536 17 2 THE SWING EQUATION 538 17 3 STEADY STATE STABILITY 543 17 4 EQUAL AREA CRITERION 546 17 5 CRITICAL CLEARING ANGLE 550 17 6 TWO FINITE MACHINES 554 17 7 POINT-BY-POINT METHOD 556 17 8 FACTORS AFFECTING TRANSIENT STABILITY 562 17 9 THE ROLE OF AUTOMATIC VOLTAGE REGULATOR (AVR) IN IMPROVING STABILITY 563 17 10 THE EXCITATION SYSTEM 566 17 11 EFFECT OF GROUNDING ON STABILITY 568 17 12 PREVENTION OF STEADY PULL OUT 569 17 13 MULTI-MACHINE STABILITY—CLASSICAL MODEL 573 17 14 LIMITATIONS OF THE CLASSICAL MODEL 587 18 LOAD FLOWS 591–625 18 1 BUS CLASSIFICATION 593 18 2 NODAL ADMITTANCE MATRIX 594 18 3 DEVELOPMENT OF LOAD FLOW EQUATIONS 598 18 4 ITERATIVE METHODS 599 18 5 NEWTON-RAPHSON METHOD 608 18 6 COMPARISON OF SOLUTION METHODS 618 18 7 APPROXIMATION TO NEWTON-RAPHSON METHOD 619 18 8 LINE FLOW EQUATIONS 619 18 9 FAST-DECOUPLED LOAD FLOW 620 19 ECONOMIC LOAD DISPATCH 627–661 19 1 SYSTEM CONSTRAINTS 629 19 2 ECONOMIC DISPATCH NEGLECTING LOSSES 632 19 3 OPTIMUM LOAD DISPATCH INCLUDING TRANSMISSION LOSSES 635 19 4 EXACT TRANSMISSION LOSS FORMULA 649 19 5 MODIFIED COORDINATION EQUATIONS 651 19 6 AUTOMATIC LOAD DISPATCHING 654 19 7 POWER LINE CARRIER COMMUNICATION (PLCC) 656 20 LOAD FREQUENCY CONTROL 663–678 20 1 LOAD FREQUENCY PROBLEM 664 20 2 SPEED GOVERNING SYSTEM 667 20 3 REASONS FOR LIMITS ON FREQUENCY 672 21 COMPENSATION IN POWER SYSTEM 679–717 21 1 LOAD COMPENSATION 680 21 2 LOADABILITY CHARACTERISTIC OF O/H LINES 685 21 3 UNCOMPENSATED TRANSMISSION LINE 687 21 4 SYMMETRICAL LINE 690 21 5 RADIAL LINE WITH ASYNCHRONOUS LOAD 692 21 6 COMPENSATION OF LINES 694 21 7 SUBSYNCHRONOUS RESONANCE 700 21 8 ACTIVE SHUNT COMPENSATOR 702 21 9 STATIC COMPENSATORS 705 21 10 FLEXIBLE A C TRANSMISSION SYSTEM (FACTS) 713 22 POWER SYSTEM VOLTAGE STABILITY 719–762 22 1 REACTIVE POWER FLOW 720 22 2 DIFFICULTIES WITH REACTIVE POWER TRANSMISSION 724 22 3 VOLTAGE STABILITY: DEFINITION AND CONCEPT 729 22 4 POWER SYSTEM LOADS 734 22 5 GENERATION CHARACTERISTICS 743 22 6 HVDC OPERATION 747 22 7 VOLTAGE STABILITY ANALYSIS: P-V CURVES 750 22 8 METHODS OF IMPROVING VOLTAGE STABILITY 756 23 STATE ESTIMATION IN POWER SYSTEMS 763–796 23 1 INTRODUCTION 764 23 2 STATE ESTIMATION FOR LINE POWER FLOW 765 23 3 MAXIMUM LIKELIHOOD CRITERION 776 23 4 DETECTION AND IDENTIFICATION OF BAD DATA 786 23 5 STATE ESTIMATOR LINEAR MODEL 789 23 6 THE ROLE OF STATE ESTIMATION IN POWER SYSTEM OPERATIONS 794 24 UNIT COMMITMENT 797–811 24 1 INTRODUCTION 798 24 2 SPINNING RESERVE 800 24 3 THERMAL UNIT CONSTRAINTS 801 24 4 UNIT COMMITMENT SOLUTION METHODS 802 25 ECONOMIC SCHEDULING OF HYDROTHERMAL PLANTS AND OPTIMAL POWER FLOWS 813–831 25 1 INTRODUCTION 814 25 2 PROBLEM FORMULATION 815 25 3 OPTIMAL POWER FLOW 820 25 4 PROBLEM FORMULATION 822 25 5 MULTI-OBJECTIVE OPTIMAL POWER FLOW 826 25 6 PROBLEM FORMULATION 827