CROSSED-FIELD MICROWAVE DEVICES
CONTENTS V CONTENTS OVERVIEW INTRODUCTION RF DEVICES SIGNAL TRANSMISSION AND NETWORK METHODS AMPLI?ERS MIXERS FILTERS OSCILLATORS AND FREQUENCY SYNTHESISERS RF DEVICES: CHARACTERISTICS AND MODELLING SEMICONDUCTOR PROPERTIES 2 2 1 INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS 2 2 2 DOPED SEMICONDUCTORS 2 2 2 1 N-TYPE DOPING 2 2 2 2 P-TYPE DOPING 2 2 3 BAND MODEL FOR SEMICONDUCTORS 2 2 4 CARRIER CONTINUITY EQUATION P-N JUNCTION 2 3 1 THERMAL EQUILIBRIUM 2 3 2 REVERSE BIAS 2 3 3 FORWARD BIAS 2 3 4 DIODE MODEL 2 3 5 MANUFACTURING 2 3 6 APPLICATIONS OF P-N DIODES AT MICROWAVE FREQUENCIES 2 3 6 1 AMPLITUDE MODULATORS 2 3 6 2 PHASE SHIFTERS 2 3 6 3 FREQUENCY MULTIPLIERS THE SCHOTTKY DIODE 2 4 1 THERMAL EQUILIBRIUM 2 4 2 REVERSE BIAS 2 4 3 FORWARD BIAS 2 4 4 ELECTRIC MODEL 2 4 5 MANUFACTURING 2 4 6 APPLICATIONS 2 4 6 1 DETECTORS 2 4 6 2 MIXERS PIN DIODES 2 5 1 THERMAL EQUILIBRIUM 2 5 2 REVERSE BIAS 2 5 3 FORWARD BIAS 2 5 4 EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT 2 5 5 MANUFACTURING 2 5 6 APPLICATIONS 2 5 6 1 SWITCHING 2 5 6 2 PHASE SHIFTING 2 5 6 3 VARIABLE ATTENUATION 2 5 6 4 POWER LIMITING STEP-RECOVERY DIODES GUNN DIODES 2 7 1 SELF-OSCILLATIONS 2 7 2 OPERATING MODES 2 7 2 1 ACCUMULATION LAYER MODE 2 7 2 2 TRANSIT-TIME DIPOLE LAYER MODE 2 7 2 3 QUENCHED DIPOLE LAYER MODE 2 7 2 4 LIMITED-SPACE-CHARGE ACCUMULATION (LSA) MODE 2 7 3 EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT 2 7 4 APPLICATIONS 2 7 4 1 NEGATIVE RESISTANCE AMPLI?ERS 2 7 4 2 OSCILLATORS IMPATT DIODES 2 8 1 DOPING PRO?LES 2 8 2 PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION 2 8 3 DEVICE EQUATIONS 2 8 4 EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT TRANSISTORS 2 9 1 SOME PRELIMINARY COMMENTS ON TRANSISTOR MODELLING 2 9 1 1 MODEL TYPES 2 9 1 2 SMALL AND LARGE SIGNAL BEHAVIOUR 2 9 2 GAAS MESFETS 2 9 2 1 CURRENT-VOLTAGE CHARACTERISTICS 2 9 2 2 CAPACITANCE-VOLTAGE CHARACTERISTICS 2 9 2 3 SMALL SIGNAL EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT 2 9 2 4 LARGE SIGNAL EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT 2 9 2 5 CURTICE MODEL 2 9 3 HEMTS 2 9 3 1 CURRENT-VOLTAGE CHARACTERISTICS 2 9 3 2 CAPACITANCE-VOLTAGE CHARACTERISTICS 2 9 3 3 SMALL SIGNAL EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT 2 9 3 4 LARGE SIGNAL EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT 2 9 4 HBTS 2 9 4 1 CURRENT-VOLTAGE CHARACTERISTICS 2 9 4 2 CAPACITANCE-VOLTAGE CHARACTERISTICS 2 9 4 3 SMALL SIGNAL EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT 2 9 4 4 LARGE SIGNAL EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT 2 10 PROBLEMS REFERENCES SIGNAL TRANSMISSION, NETWORK METHODS AND IMPEDANCE MATCHING TRANSMISSION LINES: GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 3 2 1 STRUCTURAL CLASSI?CATION 3 2 2 MODE CLASSES THE TWO-CONDUCTOR TRANSMISSION LINE: REVISION OF DISTRIBUTED CIRCUIT THEORY 3 3 1 THE DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS AND WAVE SOLUTIONS 3 3 2 CHARACTERISTIC IMPEDANCE LOSS, DISPERSION, PHASE AND GROUP VELOCITY 3 4 1 PHASE VELOCITY 3 4 2 LOSS 3 4 3 DISPERSION 3 4 4 GROUP VELOCITY 3 4 5 FREQUENCY DEPENDENCE OF LINE PARAMETERS 3 4 5 1 FREQUENCY DEPENDENCE OF G 3 4 6 HIGH FREQUENCY OPERATION 3 4 6 1 LOSSLESS APPROXIMATION 3 4 6 2 THE TELEGRAPHER’S EQUATION AND THE WAVE EQUATION FIELD THEORY METHOD FOR IDEAL TEM CASE 3 5 1 PRINCIPLES OF ELECTROMAGNETISM: REVISION 3 5 2 THE TEM LINE 3 5 3 THE STATIC SOLUTIONS 3 5 4 VALIDITY OF THE TIME VARYING SOLUTION 3 5 5 FEATURES OF THE TEM MODE 3 5 5 1 A USEFUL RELATIONSHIP 3 5 6 PICTURING THE WAVE PHYSICALLY MICROSTRIP 3 6 1 QUASI-TEM MODE AND QUASI-STATIC PARAMETERS 3 6 1 1 FIELDS AND STATIC TEM DESIGN PARAMETERS 3 6 1 2 DESIGN AIMS 3 6 1 3 CALCULATION OF MICROSTRIP PHYSICAL WIDTH 3 6 2 DISPERSION AND ITS ACCOMMODATION IN DESIGN APPROACHES 3 6 3 FREQUENCY LIMITATIONS: SURFACE WAVES AND TRANSVERSE RESONANCE 3 6 4 LOSS MECHANISMS 3 6 5 DISCONTINUITY MODELS 3 6 5 1 THE FORESHORTENED OPEN END 3 6 5 2 MICROSTRIP VIAS 3 6 5 3 MITRED BENDS 3 6 5 4 THE MICROSTRIP T-JUNCTION 3 6 6 INTRODUCTION TO FILTER CONSTRUCTION USING MICROSTRIP 3 6 6 1 MICROSTRIP LOW-PASS ?LTERS 3 6 6 2 EXAMPLE OF LOW-PASS ?LTER DESIGN COUPLED MICROSTRIP LINES 3 7 1 THEORY USING EVEN AND ODD MODES 3 7 1 1 DETERMINATION OF COUPLED REGION PHYSICAL LENGTH 3 7 1 2 FREQUENCY RESPONSE OF THE COUPLED REGION 3 7 1 3 COUPLER DIRECTIVITY 3 7 1 4 COUPLER COMPENSATION BY MEANS OF LUMPED CAPACITORS 3 7 2 SPECIAL COUPLERS: LANGE COUPLERS, HYBRIDS AND BRANCH-LINE DIRECTIONAL COUPLERS NETWORK METHODS 3 8 1 REVISION OF Z, Y, H AND ABCD MATRICES 3 8 2 DE?NITION OF SCATTERING PARAMETERS 3 8 3 S-PARAMETERS FOR ONE- AND TWO-PORT NETWORKS 3 8 4 ADVANTAGES OF S-PARAMETERS 3 8 5 CONVERSION OF S-PARAMETERS INTO Z-PARAMETERS 3 8 6 NON-EQUAL COMPLEX SOURCE AND LOAD IMPEDANCE IMPEDANCE MATCHING 3 9 1 THE SMITH CHART 3 9 2 MATCHING USING THE SMITH CHART 3 9 2 1 LUMPED ELEMENT MATCHING 3 9 2 2 DISTRIBUTED ELEMENT MATCHING 3 9 2 3 SINGLE STUB MATCHING 3 9 2 4 DOUBLE STUB MATCHING 3 9 3 INTRODUCTION TO BROADBAND MATCHING 3 9 4 MATCHING USING THE QUARTER WAVELENGTH LINE TRANSFORMER 3 9 5 MATCHING USING THE SINGLE SECTION TRANSFORMER 3 10 NETWORK ANALYSERS 3 10 1 PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION 3 10 1 1 THE SIGNAL SOURCE 3 10 1 2 THE TWO-PORT TEST SET 3 10 1 3 THE RECEIVER 3 10 2 CALIBRATION KITS AND PRINCIPLES OF ERROR CORRECTION 3 10 3 TRANSISTOR MOUNTINGS 3 10 4 CALIBRATION APPROACHES 3 11 SUMMARY AMPLI?ER DESIGN AMPLI?ER GAIN DE?NITIONS 4 2 1 THE TRANSDUCER GAIN 4 2 2 THE AVAILABLE POWER GAIN 4 2 3 THE OPERATING POWER GAIN 4 2 4 IS THERE A FOURTH DE?NITION? 4 2 5 THE MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER THEOREM 4 2 6 EFFECT OF LOAD ON INPUT IMPEDANCE 4 2 7 THE EXPRESSION FOR TRANSDUCER GAIN 4 2 8 THE ORIGIN OF CIRCLE MAPPINGS 4 2 9 GAIN CIRCLES STABILITY 4 3 1 OSCILLATION CONDITIONS 4 3 2 PRODUCTION OF NEGATIVE RESISTANCE 4 3 3 CONDITIONAL AND UNCONDITIONAL STABILITY 4 3 4 STABILITY CIRCLES 4 3 5 NUMERICAL TESTS FOR STABILITY 4 3 6 GAIN CIRCLES AND FURTHER GAIN DE?NITIONS 4 3 7 DESIGN STRATEGIES BROADBAND AMPLI?ER DESIGN 4 4 1 COMPENSATED MATCHING EXAMPLE 4 4 2 FANO’S LIMITS 4 4 3 NEGATIVE FEEDBACK 4 4 4 BALANCED AMPLI?ERS 4 4 4 1 PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION 4 4 4 2 COMMENTS 4 4 4 3 BALANCED AMPLI?ER ADVANTAGES 4 4 4 4 BALANCED AMPLI?ER DISADVANTAGES LOW NOISE AMPLI?ER DESIGN 4 5 1 REVISION OF THERMAL NOISE 4 5 2 NOISE TEMPERATURE AND NOISE FIGURE 4 5 3 TWO-PORT NOISE AS A FOUR PARAMETER SYSTEM 4 5 4 THE DEPENDENCE ON SOURCE IMPEDANCE 4 5 5 NOISE FIGURES CIRCLES 4 5 6 MINIMUM NOISE DESIGN PRACTICAL CIRCUIT CONSIDERATIONS 4 6 1 HIGH FREQUENCIES COMPONENTS 4 6 1 1 RESISTORS 4 6 1 2 CAPACITORS 4 6 1 3 CAPACITOR TYPES 4 6 1 4 INDUCTORS 4 6 2 SMALL SIGNAL AMPLI?ER DESIGN 4 6 2 1 LOW-NOISE AMPLI?ER DESIGN USING CAD SOFTWARE 4 6 2 2 EXAMPLE 4 6 3 DESIGN OF DC BIASING CIRCUIT FOR MICROWAVE BIPOLAR TRANSISTORS 4 6 3 1 PASSIVE BIASING CIRCUITS 4 6 3 2 ACTIVE BIASING CIRCUITS 4 6 4 DESIGN OF BIASING CIRCUITS FOR GAAS FET TRANSISTORS 4 6 4 1 PASSIVE BIASING CIRCUITS 4 6 4 2 ACTIVE BIASING CIRCUITS 4 6 5 INTRODUCTION OF THE BIASING CIRCUIT 4 6 5 1 IMPLEMENTATION OF THE RFC IN THE BIAS NETWORK 4 6 5 2 LOW FREQUENCY STABILITY 4 6 5 3 SOURCE GROUNDING TECHNIQUES COMPUTER AIDED DESIGN (CAD) 4 7 1 THE RF CAD APPROACH 4 7 2 MODELLING 4 7 3 ANALYSIS 4 7 3 1 LINEAR FREQUENCY DOMAIN ANALYSIS 4 7 3 2 NON-LINEAR TIME DOMAIN TRANSIENT ANALYSIS 4 7 3 3 NON-LINEAR CONVOLUTION ANALYSIS 4 7 3 4 HARMONIC BALANCE ANALYSIS 4 7 3 5 ELECTROMAGNETIC ANALYSIS 4 7 3 6 PLANAR ELECTROMAGNETIC SIMULATION 4 7 4 OPTIMISATION 4 7 4 1 OPTIMISATION SEARCH METHODS 4 7 4 2 ERROR FUNCTION FORMULATION 4 7 5 FURTHER FEATURES OF RF CAD TOOLS 4 7 5 1 SCHEMATIC CAPTURE OF CIRCUITS 4 7 5 2 LAYOUT-BASED DESIGN 4 7 5 3 STATISTICAL DESIGN OF RF CIRCUITS APPENDIX I APPENDIX II MIXERS: THEORY AND DESIGN GENERAL PROPERTIES DEVICES FOR MIXERS 5 3 1 THE SCHOTTKY-BARRIER DIODE 5 3 1 1 NON-LINEAR EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT 5 3 1 2 LINEAR EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT AT AN OPERATING POINT 5 3 1 3 EXPERIMENTAL CHARACTERIZATION OF SCHOTTKY DIODES 5 3 2 BIPOLAR TRANSISTORS 5 3 3 FIELD-EFFECT TRANSISTORS NON-LINEAR ANALYSIS 5 4 1 INTERMODULATION PRODUCTS 5 4 2 APPLICATION TO THE SCHOTTKY-BARRIER DIODE 5 4 3 INTERMODULATION POWER 5 4 4 LINEAR APPROXIMATION DIODE MIXER THEORY 5 5 1 LINEAR ANALYSIS: CONVERSION MATRICES 5 5 1 1 CONVERSION MATRIX OF A NON-LINEAR RESISTANCE/CONDUCTANCE 5 5 1 2 CONVERSION MATRIX OF A NON-LINEAR CAPACITANCE 5 5 1 3 CONVERSION MATRIX OF A LINEAR RESISTANCE 5 5 1 4 CONVERSION MATRIX OF THE COMPLETE DIODE 5 5 1 5 CONVERSION MATRIX OF A MIXER CIRCUIT 5 5 1 6 CONVERSION GAIN AND INPUT/OUTPUT IMPEDANCES 5 5 2 LARGE SIGNAL ANALYSIS: HARMONIC BALANCE SIMULATION FET MIXERS 5 6 1 SINGLE-ENDED FET MIXERS 5 6 1 1 SIMPLI?ED ANALYSIS OF A SINGLE-GATE FET MIXER 5 6 1 2 LARGE-SIGNAL AND SMALL-SIGNAL ANALYSIS OF SINGLE-GATE FET MIXERS 5 6 1 3 OTHER TOPOLOGIES DOUBLE–GATE FET MIXERS 5 7 1 IF AMPLI?ER 5 7 2 FINAL DESIGN 5 7 3 MIXER MEASUREMENTS SINGLE-BALANCED FET MIXERS DOUBLE-BALANCED FET MIXERS 5 10 HARMONIC MIXERS 5 10 1 SINGLE-DEVICE HARMONIC MIXERS 5 10 2 BALANCED HARMONIC MIXERS 5 11 MONOLITHIC MIXERS 5 11 1 CHARACTERISTICS OF MONOLITHIC MEDIUM 5 11 2 DEVICES 5 11 3 SINGLE-DEVICE FET MIXERS 5 11 4 SINGLE-BALANCED FET MIXERS 5 11 5 DOUBLE-BALANCED FET MIXERS FILTER FUNDAMENTALS 6 2 1 TWO-PORT NETWORK DE?NITIONS 6 2 2 FILTER DESCRIPTION 6 2 3 FILTER IMPLEMENTATION 6 2 4 THE LOW PASS PROTOTYPE FILTER 6 2 5 THE FILTER DESIGN PROCESS 6 2 5 1 FILTER SIMULATION MATHEMATICAL FILTER RESPONSES 6 3 1 THE BUTTERWORTH RESPONSE 6 3 2 THE CHEBYSHEV RESPONSE 6 3 3 THE BESSEL RESPONSE 6 3 4 THE ELLIPTIC RESPONSE LOW PASS PROTOTYPE FILTER DESIGN 6 4 1 CALCULATIONS FOR BUTTERWORTH PROTOTYPE ELEMENTS 6 4 2 CALCULATIONS FOR CHEBYSHEV PROTOTYPE ELEMENTS 6 4 3 CALCULATIONS FOR BESSEL PROTOTYPE ELEMENTS 6 4 4 CALCULATIONS FOR ELLIPTIC PROTOTYPE ELEMENTS FILTER IMPEDANCE AND FREQUENCY SCALING 6 5 1 IMPEDANCE SCALING 6 5 2 FREQUENCY SCALING 6 5 3 LOW PASS TO LOW PASS EXPANSION 6 5 4 LOW PASS TO HIGH PASS TRANSFORMATION 6 5 5 LOW PASS TO BAND PASS TRANSFORMATION 6 5 6 LOW PASS TO BAND STOP TRANSFORMATION 6 5 7 RESONANT NETWORK TRANSFORMATIONS ELLIPTIC FILTER TRANSFORMATION 6 6 1 LOW PASS ELLIPTIC TRANSLATION 6 6 2 HIGH PASS ELLIPTIC TRANSLATION 6 6 3 BAND PASS ELLIPTIC TRANSLATION 6 6 4 BAND STOP ELLIPTIC TRANSLATION FILTER NORMALISATION 6 7 1 LOW PASS NORMALISATION 6 7 2 HIGH PASS NORMALISATION 6 7 3 BAND PASS NORMALISATION 6 7 3 1 BROADBAND BAND PASS NORMALISATION 6 7 3 2 NARROWBAND BAND PASS NORMALISATION 6 7 4 BAND STOP NORMALISATION 6 7 4 1 BROADBAND BAND STOP NORMALISATION 6 7 7 2 NARROWBAND BAND STOP NORMALISATION OSCILLATORS, FREQUENCY SYNTHESISERS AND PLL TECHNIQUES SOLID STATE MICROWAVE OSCILLATORS 7 2 1 FUNDAMENTALS 7 2 1 1 AN IMPATT OSCILLATOR 7 2 2 STABILITY OF OSCILLATIONS NEGATIVE RESISTANCE DIODE OSCILLATORS 7 3 1 DESIGN TECHNIQUE EXAMPLES TRANSISTOR OSCILLATORS 7 4 1 DESIGN FUNDAMENTALS OF TRANSISTOR OSCILLATORS 7 4 1 1 ACHIEVEMENT OF THE NEGATIVE RESISTANCE 7 4 1 2 RESONATOR CIRCUITS FOR TRANSISTOR OSCILLATORS 7 4 2 COMMON TOPOLOGIES OF TRANSISTOR OSCILLATORS 7 4 2 1 THE COLPITTS OSCILLATOR 7 4 2 2 THE CLAPP OSCILLATOR 7 4 2 3 THE HARTLEY OSCILLATOR 7 4 2 4 OTHER PRACTICAL TOPOLOGIES OF TRANSISTOR OSCILLATORS 7 4 2 5 MICROWAVE OSCILLATORS USING DISTRIBUTED ELEMENTS 7 4 3 ADVANCED CAD TECHNIQUES OF TRANSISTOR OSCILLATORS VOLTAGE-CONTROLLED OSCILLATORS 7 5 1 DESIGN FUNDAMENTALS OF VARACTOR-TUNED OSCILLATORS 7 5 2 SOME TOPOLOGIES OF VARACTOR-TUNED OSCILLATORS 7 5 2 1 VCO BASED ON THE COLPITTS TOPOLOGY 7 5 2 2 VCO BASED ON THE CLAPP TOPOLOGY 7 5 2 3 EXAMPLES OF PRACTICAL TOPOLOGIES OF MICROWAVE VCOS OSCILLATOR CHARACTERISATION AND TESTING 7 6 1 FREQUENCY 7 6 2 OUTPUT POWER 7 6 3 STABILITY AND NOISE 7 6 3 1 AM AND PM NOISE 7 6 4 PULLING AND PUSHING MICROWAVE PHASE LOCKED OSCILLATORS 7 7 1 PLL FUNDAMENTALS 7 7 2 PLL STABILITY SUBSYSTEMS FOR MICROWAVE PHASE LOCKED OSCILLATORS (PLOS) 7 8 1 PHASE DETECTORS 7 8 1 1 EXCLUSIVE-OR GATE 7 8 1 2 PHASE-FREQUENCY DETECTORS 7 8 2 LOOP FILTERS 7 8 3 MIXERS AND HARMONIC MIXERS 7 8 4 FREQUENCY MULTIPLIERS AND DIVIDERS 7 8 4 1 DUAL MODULUS DIVIDER 7 8 4 2 MULTIPLIERS 7 8 5 SYNTHESISER ICS PHASE NOISE 7 9 1 FREE RUNNING AND PLO NOISE 7 9 1 1 EFFECT OF MULTIPLICATION IN PHASE NOISE 7 9 2 MEASURING PHASE NOISE 7 10 EXAMPLES OF PLOS