THE ELEMENTS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
1 Geomorphology 1 Introduction 1 11 Origin Of The Earth 4 111 Origin of the Universe - The Big Bang Theory 5 112 Stellar Evolution 6 113 Origin of the Earth - The Solar Nebula Hypothesis 7 114 Segregation of the Earth’s Layers and Atmosphere 8 12 The Geologic Time Scale 9 121 Terminology 10 122 History of the Time Scale 10 123 Dividing Earth History into Time Intervals 13 13 Interior of the Earth 14 131 Seismic Waves 15 132 The Composition and Structure of Earth 16 14 Types and Characteristics of Rocks 19 141 Rock Types 20 15 Weathering 28 151 Mechanical Weathering 29 152 Chemical Weathering 30 Summary 34 Knowledge Check 35 Review Questions 36 References 38 TABLE OF CONTENTS 2 Important Geophysical Phenomena 39 Introduction 39 21 Earthquakes 41 211 Causes of Earthquakes 41 212 Effects of Earthquakes 45 213 How Are Earthquakes Measured 50 214 Can Earthquakes Be Predicted 50 22 Tsunami 51 221 Causes of Tsunami 52 222 What Happens When It Hits Land 54 23 Volcanic Activity 55 231 Origin of the Name Volcano 56 232 Where do Volcanoes Form? 56 233 How Deadly are Volcanoes? 58 234 How Big Can A Volcanic Eruption Be? 59 24 Cyclone 62 241 Types of Cyclones 62 242 Formation of a Cyclone 63 243 Tropical Cyclone Damage 64 Summary 71 Knowledge Check 72 Review Questions 73 References 75 3 Geographical Features and their Location 77 Introduction 77 31 Mountains 79 311 Types of Mountains 80 312 Mountains: How Are They Formed? 84 313 Impact of Mountains on Habitats and Geopolitics 89 314 The Economic Significance of Mountains 89 32 Plains 90 321 Types of Plains 91 322 Plain Formation 94 323 Economic Significance of Plains 96 33 Plateaus 97 331 Classification of Plateaus 98 332 Formation From Under the Earth’s Surface 100 333 Geographic Distribution 101 334 Economic Significance of Plateaus 103 Summary 105 Knowledge Check 106 Review Questions 108 References 109 4 Climatology 111 Introduction 111 41 Basics of Climatology 112 411 A History of Climatology 113 412 Natural Variables That Influence Our Climate 118 413 The Human Impacts on Climate 122 414 The Future Challenges for Climatology 123 42 Atmosphere – Structure and Composition 125 421 Composition of the Atmosphere 126 422 Atmospheric Structure 129 43 Temperature 132 431 Units of Temperature 133 432 Factors Influencing Temperature 133 44 Pressure Belts 137 441 Pressure Belts of Earth 137 442 Shifting Of Pressure Belts 138 45 Wind Systems 139 451 How Do Winds Form? 140 452 Types of Winds 140 46 Clouds and Types of Rainfall 144 461 The Types of Rain Clouds 145 462 Precipitation Types 150 463 Clouds and Weather 152 464 Extraterrestrial Clouds 152 47 Major Climatic Types 153 471 Climate System 153 472 Climate Classification 155 473 Major Climate Regions 158 Summary 164 Knowledge Check 165 Review Questions 166 References 168 5 Oceanography 169 Introduction 169 51 Relief of the Ocean Basins 170 511 Major Ocean Relief 170 512 Minor Ocean Relief 173 513 Roles of Ocean Relief 177 52 Temperature of the Ocean Water 177 521 Variation in Temperature 180 522 What Happens When Temperature Changes 181 53 Salinity 182 531 Historical Background and Scientific Foundations 183 532 Controlling Factors of Salinity 183 533 Variation in Salinity 186 534 Impacts and Issues 188 54 Ocean Deposits 189 541 Types of Ocean Deposits 189 55 Ocean Currents 192 551 Why Do Currents Flow? 194 552 The Importance of Ocean Currents 196 553 Ocean Currents as Alternative Energy 197 Summary 200 Knowledge Check 201 Review Questions 202 References 204 6 Biogeography 205 Introduction 205 61 Soil – Origin and Types 206 611 Origin of Soil 207 612 The Soil Profile 208 613 Soil Forming Factors 209 614 Properties of Soil 213 615 Types of Soil 216 616 Component of Soils 218 62 Major Biomes of the World 220 621 Why organize natural world into biomes? 226 622 Conservation and Preservation of Biomes 227 Summary 230 Knowledge Check 231 Review Questions 232 References 234 7 Environmental Geography 235 Introduction 235 71 Principle of Ecology 236 711 Organismal Ecology and Population Ecology 237 712 Community Ecology and Ecosystem Ecology 239 72 Ecosystems 241 721 Ecosystem Structure 242 722 Types of Ecosystem 243 73 Ecosystem Their Management and Conservation 247 731 Ecosystem Degradation 248 732 Components and Structure of an Ecosystem 250 733 Energy Flow through Ecosystem 252 734 Ecosystem-based Management 259 74 Ecological Succession 262 741 Types of Ecological Succession 262 742 Factors of Ecological Succession 264 Summary 270 Knowledge Check 271 Review Questions 272 References 274 8 Atmospheric Circulations and Climate Patterns 275 Introduction 275 81 Global Surface Wind Systems 276 811 Upper Air Winds and Jet Streams 284 812 Sub global Surface Wind Systems 288 82 Global Circulation 292 821 Single Cell Model vs Three Cell Model 293 822 Surface features of global atmospheric circulation system 295 83 Ocean-Atmosphere Interaction 299 831 Bjerknes Feedback 301 832 Wind-evaporation-SST (WES) Feedback 303 833 Cloud Feedback 304 834 Water Vapor Feedback 306 835 Ocean Front-atmosphere Interaction 306 84 Global Climate Change 307 841 World Climates 308 842 Elements of Climate 309 843 Classification of Climate 311 844 Global Climate Classification 312 845 Causes the Earth’s Climate to Change 313 Summary 318 Knowledge Check 319 Review Questions 320 References 321