PALEOHYDROLOGY
CONTENTS CHAPTER WATER, ROCKS, SOLUTES, AND ISOTOPES THE NATURE OF WATER SOLUTES IN WATER DISSOLVED SOLIDS UNITS OF SOLUTE CONCENTRATION DISSOLVED GASES STABLE ISOTOPES ENVIRONMENTAL RADIOISOTOPES FROM ELEMENTS TO AQUIFERS ELEMENTS AND IONS DISTRIBUTION OF ELEMENTS IN THE EARTH’S CRUST ROCK-FORMING MINERALS SEDIMENTS, ROCKS, AQUIFERS, AND AQUITARDS GEOCHEMICAL AND ISOTOPE ANALYSES FIELD AND BULK PARAMETERS MAJOR IONS AND ISOTOPES MINOR SPECIES, NUTRIENTS, AND GASES CHARGE BALANCE ERROR PROBLEMS CHAPTER THERMODYNAMICS OF AQUEOUS SYSTEMS INTRODUCTION MASS ACTION LAW OF MASS ACTION BONDING EQUILIBRIUM AND NONEQUILIBRIUM STATES ION ACTIVITY AND EQUILIBRIUM CONSTANTS ACTIVITIES AND ACTIVITY COEFFICIENTS ACTIVITY OF WATER AND MINERALS ACTIVITIES IN BRINES EQUILIBRIUM REACTION CONSTANT K GIBBS FREE ENERGY AND DETERMINATION OF K MINERAL SATURATION INDEX TEMPERATURE EFFECT ON K ELECTRON ACTIVITY AND REDOX ELECTRON DONORS, ELECTRON ACCEPTORS, AND REDOX COUPLES ELECTRON ACTIVITY (PE) ELECTROMOTIVE POTENTIAL (EH) EH AND PE REDOX EQUILIBRIA AND MEASURED EH SPECIATION AND MINERAL SOLUBILITY CODES MASS TRANSFER MODELS GEOCHEMICAL REACTIONS DISSOCIATION REACTIONS PH AND DISSOCIATION OF ACIDS DISSOCIATION OF SALTS ION HYDRATION ION HYDROLYSIS FORMATION OF ION PAIRS INCONGRUENT DISSOLUTION BALANCING DISSOCIATION REACTIONS REDOX REACTIONS REDOX COUPLES IN GROUNDWATER REDOX REACTIONS IN GROUNDWATER BALANCING REDOX REACTIONS GASES IN GROUNDWATER GAS PARTIAL PRESSURE HENRY’S LAW FOR GAS DISSOLUTION PARTIAL PRESSURE OF DISSOLVED GAS GAS SOLUBILITY IN VOLUMETRIC UNITS: BUNSEN COEFFICIENT GAS SOLUBILITY WITH TEMPERATURE GAS SOLUBILITY AND PRESSURE GAS SOLUBILITY AND SALINITY BIOGENIC AND GEOGENIC GASES IN THE SUBSURFACE CO2 AND DISSOLVED INORGANIC CARBON PH AND THE DISTRIBUTION OF DISSOLVED INORGANIC CARBON SPECIES PARTIAL PRESSURE OF CO2 AND DISSOLVED INORGANIC CARBON ISOTOPE REACTIONS STABLE ISOTOPE FRACTIONATION AND DISTILLATION EQUILIBRIUM FRACTIONATION FRACTIONATION FACTOR (? ) ENRICHMENT FACTOR (?) FRACTIONATION AND TEMPERATURE KINETIC AND MICROBIALLY MEDIATED REACTIONS DIFFUSIVE FRACTIONATION QUANTITATIVE (SURFACE) REACTIONS RAYLEIGH DISTILLATION OF ISOTOPES ISOTOPE MASS BALANCE EQUATIONS RADIOISOTOPES MODES OF RADIOACTIVE DECAY RADIOACTIVE DECAY RATE, DECAY CONSTANT, AND HALF-LIFE ACTIVITY–CONCENTRATION RELATIONSHIP RADIOISOTOPES AND GEOCHRONOLOGY TRACING THE WATER CYCLE TEMPERATURE–? 18O CORRELATION IN PRECIPITATION RAINOUT AND RAYLEIGH DISTILLATION OF 18O ? 18O—TEMPERATURE CORRELATION IN GLOBAL PRECIPITATION NON-RAYLEIGH PROCESSES DURING RAINOUT METEORIC WATER LINE FOR ?18O AND ?D SLOPE OF THE METEORIC WATER LINE DEUTERIUM EXCESS AND THE ORIGIN OF WATER VAPOR TEMPERATURE EFFECTS IN PRECIPITATION CONTINENTAL EFFECT ALTITUDE EFFECT SEASONAL EFFECTS IN CONTINENTAL PRECIPITATION PALEOCLIMATE EFFECTS GROUNDWATER RECHARGE SEASONALITY OF RECHARGE DISPERSION DURING RECHARGE ISOTOPE EFFECTS OF EVAPORATION MULTICOMPONENT GROUNDWATER MIXING TWO-COMPONENT MIXING MIXING WITH SOLUTE ISOTOPE AND CONCENTRATION THREE-COMPONENT MIXING DIFFUSIVE MIXING IN AQUITARDS ROCK–WATER–GAS INTERACTION MINERAL HYDRATION AND SHIELD BRINES ISOTOPE EXCHANGE WITH MINERALS GAS EXCHANGE REACTIONS CO2 AND WEATHERING CO2 AND THE CARBON CYCLE CARBON RESERVOIRS AND FLUXES ? 13C AND 14C IN THE CARBON CYCLE SOIL CO2 AND WEATHERING OPEN AND CLOSED SYSTEM WEATHERING SOIL PCO2 AND CARBONIC ACID IN THE RECHARGE ENVIRONMENT SOIL ACIDITY FROM SULFIDE, ORGANIC NITROGEN, AND FE2+ OXIDATION IN SOILS CARBONATE WEATHERING OPEN SYSTEM CARBONATE WEATHERING CLOSED SYSTEM CARBONATE WEATHERING WEATHERING IN SILICATE TERRAINS SILICATE WEATHERING REACTIONS CONTROLS ON SILICATE WEATHERING CLOSED SYSTEM SILICATE WEATHERING AND PH WEATHERING AND 13C OF DISSOLVED INORGANIC CARBON ? 13CDIC IN THE RECHARGE ENVIRONMENT ? 13C AND CARBONATE WEATHERING EVOLUTION OF ? 13CDIC IN SILICATE AQUIFERS ? 13C OF DISSOLVED INORGANIC CARBON IN SURFACE WATERS RADIOCARBON AS A TRACER OF DISSOLVED INORGANIC CARBON STRONTIUM ISOTOPES AS TRACERS OF WEATHERING WEATHERING AND ALKALINITY CARBONATE ALKALINITY ALKALINITY IN HIGH PH WATERS PCO2 AND ALKALINITY EXTREME ALKALINITY: HIGH PH VERSUS HIGH PCO2—A TALE OF TWO TRAVERTINES ADVANCED CHEMICAL WEATHERING: SAPROLITES AND LATERITES GEOCHEMICAL EVOLUTION ION EXCHANGE SURFACES IN AQUIFERS CLAY MINERALS HUMIC SUBSTANCES IRON AND MANGANESE OXYHYDROXIDES COLLOIDS ZEOLITES CATION EXCHANGE THE DOUBLE LAYER SELECTIVITY COEFFICIENT CATION EXCHANGE CAPACITY CATION EXCHANGE DISEQUILIBRIUM NATURAL GROUNDWATER SOFTENING SORPTION DISTRIBUTION COEFFICIENT, KD, AND THE SORPTION ISOTHERM NONLINEAR SORPTION ISOTHERM SORPTION AND RETARDATION SORPTION AND SOLID ORGANIC CARBON REDOX EVOLUTION IN GROUNDWATERS PE?PH STABILITY FIELD FOR WATER O2/H2O: AEROBIC DEGRADATION OF ORGANIC CARBON NO3/N2: DENITRIFICATION MNO2/MN2+: MANGANESE REDUCTION FE(OH)3/FE2+: IRON REDUCTION AND SOLUBILITY SO4/H2S: SULFATE REDUCTION CO2/CH4: METHANOGENESIS H2O/H2—REDUCTION OF WATER SALINITY IN GROUNDWATER GRAPHICAL PRESENTATION OF GEOCHEMICAL EVOLUTION PIPER DIAGRAM QUANTITATIVE DIAGRAMS GROUNDWATER DATING GROUNDWATER AGE AND MEAN RESIDENCE TIME ANTHROPOGENIC TRACERS OF MODERN GROUNDWATER CHLOROFLUOROCARBONS AND SF6 THERMONUCLEAR TRITIUM AND THE 1963 PEAK ANTHROPOGENIC 85KR THERMONUCLEAR 14C AND 36CL TRITIUM–3HE DATING NATURAL PRODUCTION OF TRITIUM IN THE ATMOSPHERE DATING GROUNDWATERS WITH T–3HE DATING SUBMODERN GROUNDWATERS ARGON-39 SILICON-32 HELIUM-4 RADIOCARBON DATING OLD GROUNDWATER ATMOSPHERIC PRODUCTION OF 14C IN THE ATMOSPHERE 14C IN THE RECHARGE ENVIRONMENT DETERMINING Q FROM 14CDIC IN THE RECHARGE AREA CARBONATE DISSOLUTION AND MATRIX EXCHANGE DISSOLVED INORGANIC CARBON FROM ORGANIC CARBON INCORPORATION OF GEOGENIC CO2 14C DATING WITH DISSOLVED ORGANIC CARBON STABLE ISOTOPES AND NOBLE GASES IN PALEOGROUNDWATERS STABLE ISOTOPES AND PALEOGROUNDWATERS NOBLE GAS RECHARGE TEMPERATURES DATING VERY OLD GROUNDWATER CHLORINE-36 KRYPTON-81 GEOGENIC NOBLE GASES CONTAMINANT GEOCHEMISTRY AND ISOTOPES NITROGEN SPECIES AND GROUNDWATER CONTAMINATION NITROGEN SPECIES AND WATER QUALITY 15N AND 18O IN THE NITROGEN CYCLE NITROGEN IN AGRICULTURAL SETTINGS SEPTIC EFFLUENT INFILTRATION BORON AS A TRACER OF NITROGEN FROM WASTEWATER INDUSTRIAL SOURCES OF AMMONIUM ORGANIC CARBON COMPOUNDS BIODEGRADATION OF HYDROCARBONS DEGRADATION OF FUEL OXYGENATES: MTBE AND ETHANOL BIODEGRADATION OF ORGANOHALOGENS ABIOTIC DEGRADATION OF ORGANOCHLORINE COMPOUNDS IN PERMEABLE REACTIVE BARRIERS FUGITIVE GASES LANDFILL LEACHATE LANDFILL WASTE BIODEGRADATION AND LANDFILL LEACHATE TRACING LEACHATE BIODEGRADATION WITH 13C METHANOGENESIS AND ? D ACID MINE DRAINAGE GENERATION OF ACID MINE DRAINAGE SECONDARY MINERAL PRECIPITATES REMEDIATION HYPERACID DRAINAGE AT IRON MOUNTAIN, CALIFORNIA NORDIC MINE URANIUM-TAILINGS IMPOUNDMENT, ELLIOT LAKE, ONTARIO BASE METALS IN GROUNDWATER CHROMIUM (CR) MANGANESE (MN) COBALT (CO) NICKEL (NI) COPPER (CU) ZINC (ZN) SEAWATER EVAPORATION AND BEDROCK BRINES STABLE ISOTOPES AND SOURCES OF SALINITY ROAD SALT IN URBAN AQUIFERS SOURCES OF SULFATE IN GROUNDWATER STRONTIUM ISOTOPES AND SALINITY LITHIUM, ? 6LI, AND SALINITY ARSENIC ARSENIC SOURCES AND SOLUBILITY BANGLADESH ARSENIC IN MINE WATERS NUCLEAR WASTE URANIUM GEOCHEMISTRY NUCLEAR FUEL AND RADIOACTIVE WASTE RADIOACTIVE WASTE DISPOSAL RADIONUCLIDE RELEASES TO GROUNDWATER: TWO CASE STUDIES AQUITARDS AND NUCLEAR WASTE ISOLATION