GROUNDWATER GEOPHYSICS
CONTENTS 1 PETROPHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF PERMEABLE AND LOW-PERMEABLE ROCKS 11 SEISMIC VELOCITIES 111 CONSOLIDATED ROCK 112 UNCONSOLIDATED ROCK 113 CLAY AND TILL 12 ELECTRICAL RESISTIVITY 121 ARCHIE´S LAW – CONDUCTIVE PORE FLUID AND RESISTIVE ROCK MATRIX 122 LIMITATIONS OF ARCHIE´S LAW – CONDUCTING MINERAL GRAINS 13 ELECTRIC PERMITTIVITY (DIELECTRICITY) 14 CONCLUSIONS 15 REFERENCES 2 SEISMIC METHODS 21 INTRODUCTION 211 WHAT TYPE OF WAVES IS APPLIED IN SEISMIC EXPLORATION? 212 HOW CAN SEISMIC WAVES IMAGE GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE? 213 HOW ARE SEISMIC WAVES GENERATED AND RECORDED IN THE FIELD? 214 WHAT KIND OF SEISMIC MEASUREMENTS CAN BE PERFORMED? 215 WHAT KIND OF HYDRO-GEOLOGICALLY RELEVANT INFORMATION CAN BE OBTAINED FROM SEISMIC PROSPECTING? 216 WHAT ARE THE ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF SEISMIC MEASUREMENTS COMPARED TO OTHER METHODS? 22 SEISMIC REFRACTION MEASUREMENTS 221TARGETS FOR SEISMIC REFRACTION MEASUREMENTS 222 BODY WAVE PROPAGATION IN TWO-LAYER MEDIA WITH A PLANE INTERFACE 223 SEISMIC REFRACTION IN LATERALLY HETEROGENEOUS TWO-LAYER MEDIA 224 CONSISTENCY CRITERIA OF SEISMIC REFRACTION MEASUREMENTS 225 FIELD LAYOUT OF SEISMIC REFRACTION MEASUREMENTS 227 SEISMIC INTERPRETATION APPROACHES FOR HETEROGENEOUS SUBSURFACE STRUCTURES 228 STRUCTURAL RESOLUTION OF SEISMIC REFRACTION MEASUREMENTS 23 SEISMIC REFLECTION IMAGING 231 TARGETS FOR SEISMIC REFLECTION MEASUREMENTS 232 SEISMIC REFLECTION AMPLITUDES 233 CONCEPTS OF SEISMIC REFLECTION MEASUREMENTS 234 SEISMIC MIGRATION 235 FIELD LAYOUT OF SEISMIC REFLECTION MEASUREMENTS 236 PROBLEMS OF NEAR SURFACE REFLECTION SEISMICS 237 STRUCTURAL RESOLUTION OF SEISMIC REFLECTION MEASUREMENTS 24 FURTHER READING 25 REFERENCES 3 GEOELECTRICAL METHODS 31 BASIC PRINCIPLES 32 VERTICAL ELECTRICAL SOUNDINGS (VES) 321 FIELD EQUIPMENT 322 FIELD MEASUREMENTS 323 SOUNDING CURVE PROCESSING 324 AMBIGUITIES OF SOUNDING CURVE INTERPRETATION 325 GEOLOGICAL AND HYDROGEOLOGICAL INTERPRETATION 33 RESISTIVITY MAPPING 331 SQUARE ARRAY CONFIGURATION 332 MOBILE ELECTRODE ARRAYS 333 MISE-À-LA-MASSE METHOD 34 SELF- POTENTIAL MEASUREMENTS 341 BASIC PRINCIPLES OF STREAMING POTENTIAL MEASUREMENTS 342 FIELD PROCEDURES 343 DATA PROCESSING AND INTERPRETATION 35 2D MEASUREMENTS 351 FIELD EQUIPMENT 352 FIELD MEASUREMENTS 353 DATA PROCESSING AND INTERPRETATION 354 EXAMPLES 36 REFERENCES 4 COMPLEX CONDUCTIVITY MEASUREMENTS 41 INTRODUCTION 42 COMPLEX CONDUCTIVITY AND TRANSFER FUNCTION OF WET ROCKS 43 QUANTITATIVE INTERPRETATION OF COMPLEX CONDUCTIVITY MEASUREMENTS 431 LOW FREQUENCY CONDUCTIVITY MODEL 432 COMPLEX CONDUCTIVITY MEASUREMENTS 44 RELATIONS BETWEEN COMPLEX ELECTRICAL PARAMETERS AND MEAN PARAMETERS OF ROCK STATE AND TEXTURE 45 THE POTENTIAL OF COMPLEX CONDUCTIVITY FOR ENVIRONMENTAL APPLICATIONS 451 ORGANIC AND INORGANIC CONTAMINANTS 452 MONITORING SUBSURFACE HYDRAULIC PROCESSES 453 GEOHYDRAULIC PARAMETERS 46 REFERENCES 5 ELECTROMAGNETIC METHODS – FREQUENCY DOMAIN 51 AIRBORNE TECHNIQUES 511 INTRODUCTION 512 THEORY 513 SYSTEMS 514 DATA PROCESSING 515 PRESENTATION 516 DISCUSSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 52 GROUND BASED TECHNIQUES 521 SLINGRAM AND GROUND CONDUCTIVITY METERS 522 VLF, VLF-R, AND RMT 53 REFERENCES 6 THE TRANSIENT ELECTROMAGNETIC METHOD 61 INTRODUCTION 611 HISTORIC DEVELOPMENT 612 INTRODUCTION 613 EMMA - ELECTROMAGNETIC MODEL ANALYSIS 62 BASIC THEORY 621 MAXWELL’S EQUATIONS 622 SCHELKUNOFF POTENTIALS 623 THE TRANSIENT RESPONSE OVER A LAYERED HALFSPACE 624 THE TRANSIENT RESPONSE FOR A HALFSPACE 63 BASIC PRINCIPLE AND MEASURING TECHNIQUE 64 CURRENT DIFFUSION PATTERNS 642 CURRENT DENSITIES, LAYERED HALFSPACES 65 DATA CURVES 651 LATE-TIME APPARENT RESISTIVITY 66 NOISE AND RESOLUTION 661 NATURAL BACKGROUND NOISE 662 NOISE AND MEASUREMENTS 663 PENETRATION DEPTH 664 MODEL ERRORS, EQUIVALENCE 67 COUPLING TO MAN-MADE CONDUCTORS 671 COUPLING TYPES 672 HANDLING COUPLED DATA 68 MODELLING AND INTERPRETATION 681 MODELLING 682 THE 1D MODEL 683 CONFIGURATIONS, ADVANTAGES AND DRAWBACKS 69 AIRBORNE TEM 691 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND AND PRESENT AIRBORNE TEM SYSTEMS 692 SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR AIRBORNE MEASUREMENTS 610 FIELD EXAMPLE 6101 THE SKYTEM SYSTEM 6102 INVERSION OF SKYTEM DATA 6103 PROCESSING OF SKYTEM DATA 6104 THE HUNDSLUND SURVEY 611 REFERENCES 7 GROUND PENETRATING RADAR 71 ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVE PROPAGATION 711 ELECTRIC PERMITTIVITY AND CONDUCTIVITY 712 ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVE PROPAGATION 713 REFLECTION AND REFRACTION OF PLANE WAVES 714 SCATTERING AND DIFFRACTION 715 HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL RESOLUTION 716 WAVE PATHS, TRAVELTIMES, AND AMPLITUDES 717 ESTIMATION OF EXPLORATION DEPTH 72 TECHNICAL ASPECTS OF GPR 721 OVERVIEW OF SYSTEM COMPONENTS 722 ANTENNAS AND ANTENNA CHARACTERISTICS 723 ELECTRONICS 724 SURVEY PRACTICE 73 PROCESSING AND INTERPRETATION OF GPR DATA 731 GENERAL PROCESSING STEPS 732 EXAMPLES FOR GPR PROFILING AND CMP DATA 74 REFERENCES 8 MAGNETIC RESONANCE SOUNDING 81 INTRODUCTION 82 NMR-PRINCIPLES AND MRS TECHNIQUE 83 SURVEY AT WAALWIJK / THE NETHERLANDS 84 SURVEY AT NAUEN / GERMANY WITH 2D ASSESSMENT 85 CURRENT DEVELOPMENTS IN MRS 86 REFERENCES 9 MAGNETIC, GEOTHERMAL, AND RADIOACTIVITY METHODS 91 MAGNETIC METHOD 911 BASIC PRINCIPLES 912 MAGNETIC PROPERTIES OF ROCKS 913 FIELD EQUIPMENTS AND PROCEDURES 914 DATA EVALUATION AND INTERPRETATION 92 GEOTHERMAL METHOD 921 THE UNDERGROUND TEMPERATURE FIELD 922 FIELD PROCEDURES 923 INTERPRETATION OF TEMPERATURE DATA 93 RADIOACTIVITY METHOD 94 REFERENCES 10 MICROGRAVIMETRY 101 PHYSICAL BASICS 102 GRAVIMETERS 103 GRAVITY SURVEYS AND DATA PROCESSING 1031 PREPARATION AND PERFORMANCE OF FIELD SURVEYS 1032 DATA PROCESSING 104 INTERPRETATION 1041 DIRECT METHODS 1042 INDIRECT METHODS 1043 DENSITY ESTIMATION 105 TIME DEPENDENT SURVEYS ACKNOWLEDGEMENT 106 REFERENCES 11 DIRECT PUSH-TECHNOLOGIES 111 LOGGING TOOLS 1111 GEOTECHNICAL TOOLS 1112 GEOPHYSICAL TOOLS 1113 HYDROPROBES 1114 HYDROGEOCHEMICAL TOOLS 1115 MISCELLANEOUS OTHER TOOLS 112 SAMPLING TOOLS 1121 SOIL SAMPLING TOOLS 1122 SOIL GAS SAMPLING TOOLS 1123 GROUNDWATER SAMPLING TOOLS 113 TOMOGRAPHIC APPLICATIONS 114 PERMANENT INSTALLATIONS 115 CONCLUSIONS 116 REFERENCES 12 AQUIFER STRUCTURES – PORE AQUIFERS 121 PORE AQUIFERS – GENERAL 1211 DEFINITION 1212 POROSITY – A KEY PARAMETER FOR HYDROGEOLOGY 1213 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF PORE AQUIFERS 1214 GEOPHYSICAL SURVEY OF PORE AQUIFERS 122 BURIED VALLEY AQUIFER SYSTEMS 1221 INTRODUCTION 1222 GEOLOGICAL AND HYDROLOGICAL BACKGROUND 1223 METHODS 1224 DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION 123 A LARGE-SCALE TEM SURVEY OF MORS, DENMARK 1231 STUDY AREA – THE ISLAND OF MORS 1232 HYDROGEOLOGICAL MAPPING BY THE USE OF TEM 1233 DATA COLLECTION AND PROCESSING 1234 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS 1235 CONCLUSIONS 124 GROUNDWATER PROSPECTION IN CENTRAL SINAI, EGYPT 1241 INTRODUCTION 1242 GEOLOGICAL AND HYDROGEOLOGICAL ASPECTS 1243 FIELD WORK AND INTERPRETATION 1244 GROUNDWATER OCCURRENCE 125 REFERENCES 13 AQUIFER STRUCTURES: FRACTURE ZONES AND CAVES 131 HYDRAULIC IMPORTANCE OF FRACTURE ZONES AND CAVES 133 GEOPHYSICAL EXPLORATION OF FAULTS AND FRACTURE ZONES: GEOELECTRICAL METHODS 134 GEOPHYSICAL EXPLORATION OF FRACTURE ZONES: GPR 135 EXPLORATION OF FAULTS AND FRACTURE ZONES: GEOPHYSICAL PASSIVE METHODS (SELF-POTENTIAL, GRAVITY, MAGNETIC, GEOTHERMAL AND RADIOACTIVITY METHODS) 136 GEOPHYSICAL EXPLORATION OF CAVES 137 REFERENCES 14 GROUNDWATER QUALITY - SALTWATER INTRUSIONS 141 DEFINITION 142 ORIGIN OF SALTWATER INTRUSIONS 143 ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY OF SALINE WATER 144 EXPLORATION TECHNIQUES 145 FIELD EXAMPLES 1451 SALTWATER INTRUSIONS IN THE NORTH SEA REGION 1452 SALINE GROUNDWATER IN THE RED SEA PROVINCE, SUDAN 146 REFERENCES 15 GEOPHYSICAL CHARACTERISATION OF AQUIFERS 151 DEFINITION OF HYDRAULIC CONDUCTIVITY AND PERMEABILITY 152 HYDRAULIC CONDUCTIVITY RELATED TO OTHER PETROPHYSICAL PARAMETER 153 GEOPHYSICAL ASSESSMENT OF HYDRAULIC CONDUCTIVITY 1531 RESISTIVITY 1532 SEISMIC VELOCITIES 1533 NUCLEAR RESONANCE DECAY TIMES 154 CASE HISTORY: HYDRAULIC CONDUCTIVITY ESTIMATION FROM SIP DATA 155 REFERENCES 16 GROUNDWATER PROTECTION: VULNERABILITY OF AQUIFERS 161 GENERAL 162 VULNERABILITY MAPS 163 ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY RELATED TO HYDRAULIC RESISTANCE, RESIDENCE TIME, AND VULNERABILITY 164 VULNERABILITY MAPS BASED ON ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY 165 REFERENCES 17 GROUNDWATER PROTECTION: MAPPING OF CONTAMINATIONS 171 THE BROWNFIELDS PROBLEM 172 MAPPING OF WASTE DEPOSITS 173 MAPPING OF ABANDONED INDUSTRIAL SITES 174 MAPPING OF GROUNDWATER CONTAMINATIONS 1741 ANORGANIC CONTAMINANTS 1742 ORGANIC CONTAMINANTS 175 REFERENCES