APPLIED HYDROGEOLOGY OF FRACTURED ROCKS
CONTENTS 1 INTRODUCTION AND BASIC CONCEPTS ??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 1 1 NEED AND SCOPE OF THE BOOK ???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 1 2 HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE ??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 1 3 CLASSIFICATION OF SUBSURFACE WATER ??????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 1 4 CLASSIFICATION OF WATER WITH RESPECT TO ORIGIN ??????????????????????????????????? 1 5 HYDROLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION OF GEOLOGICAL FORMATIONS ???????????????????????? 1 5 1 TYPES OF AQUIFERS ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 1 6 METHODS AND STAGES OF INVESTIGATIONS ?????????????????????????????????????????????????? FURTHER READING ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 2 FRACTURES AND DISCONTINUITIES ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 2 1 INTRODUCTION ?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 2 2 DISCONTINUITIES—TYPES, GENETIC RELATIONS AND SIGNIFICANCE ?????????????? 2 2 1 BEDDING PLANE ??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 2 2 2 FOLIATION ???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 2 2 3 FRACTURES AND JOINTS ?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 2 2 4 FAULTS AND SHEAR ZONES ???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 2 2 5 OTHER GEOLOGICAL DISCONTINUITIES ????????????????????????????????????????????? 2 3 FRACTURE CHARACTERIZATION AND MEASUREMENTS ????????????????????????????????????? 2 3 1 NUMBER OF SETS ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 2 3 2 ORIENTATION ???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 2 3 3 SPACING (INTERVAL) ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 2 3 4 PERSISTENCE (FRACTURE LENGTH) ??????????????????????????????????????????????????? 2 3 5 FRACTURE DENSITY ??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 2 3 6 FRACTURE AREA AND SHAPE ?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 2 3 7 VOLUMETRIC FRACTURE COUNT ??????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 2 3 8 MATRIX BLOCK UNIT ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 2 3 9 FRACTURE CONNECTIVITY ??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 2 3 10 ROCK QUALITY DESIGNATION (RQD) ???????????????????????????????????????????? 2 3 11 APERTURE ???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 2 3 12 ASPERITY ???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 2 3 13 WALL COATINGS AND INFILLINGS ???????????????????????????????????????????????????? 2 4 METHODS OF FIELD INVESTIGATIONS ??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 2 4 1 SCANLINE SURVEYS ??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 2 4 2 AREAL SURVEYS ??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 2 4 3 BOREHOLE SURVEYS ?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 2 4 4 3D METHODS ??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 3 HYDROGEOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS ??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 3 1 GEOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS ?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 3 2 GEOMORPHOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 3 2 1 LANDFORMS ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 3 2 2 DRAINAGE CHARACTERISTICS ??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 3 3 GEOHYDROLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS ???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 3 3 1 WATER-LEVEL MEASUREMENTS ???????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 3 4 HYDROGEOLOGICAL MAPS ?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 3 4 1 REGIONAL MAPS ?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 3 4 2 MAP MEDIA—HARD COPY AND ELECTRONIC ????????????????????????????????? 3 4 3 SPECIAL PURPOSE MAPS ?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 4 REMOTE SENSING ???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 4 1 INTRODUCTION ??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 4 2 PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES ???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 4 3 REMOTE SENSORS ???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 4 3 1 PHOTOGRAPHIC SYSTEMS ??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 4 3 2 LINE SCANNING SYSTEMS ???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 4 3 3 DIGITAL CAMERAS ???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 4 3 4 IMAGING RADAR SYSTEM ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 4 4 IMPORTANT SPACEBORNE SENSORS ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 4 5 INTERPRETATION PRINCIPLES ??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 4 6 INTERPRETATION OF REMOTE SENSING DATA ???????????????????????????????????????????????? 4 6 1 PANCHROMATIC PHOTOGRAPHS AND IMAGES ???????????????????????????????????? 4 6 2 MULTISPECTRAL IMAGE DATA ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 4 6 3 CIR PHOTOGRAPHS AND COMPOSITES ???????????????????????????????????????????? 4 6 4 THERMAL IR IMAGE DATA ??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 4 6 5 SAR IMAGERY ???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 4 7 GROUNDWATER INDICATORS ON REMOTE SENSING DATA PRODUCTS ??????????????? 4 8 THEMATIC APPLICATIONS ?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 4 8 1 FEATURES ASSOCIATED WITH RECHARGE ZONES ??????????????????????????????? 4 8 2 FEATURES ASSOCIATED WITH DISCHARGE SITES ??????????????????????????????? 4 8 3 SOIL MOISTURE ???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 4 8 4 VEGETATION ???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 4 8 5 TOPOGRAPHY AND DIGITAL ELEVATION MODEL ???????????????????????????????? 4 8 6 LANDFORMS ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 4 8 7 DEPTH OF WEATHERING AND REGOLITH ??????????????????????????????????????????? 4 8 8 LITHOLOGY ??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 4 8 9 GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 4 8 10 LINEAMENTS INCLUDING JOINTS AND FRACTURES ????????????????????????????? 4 8 11 FAULTS AND SHEAR ZONES ???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 4 8 12 SOIL TYPE ??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 4 8 13 DRAINAGE CHARACTERISTICS ?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 4 8 14 SPECIAL GEOLOGICAL FEATURES ????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 4 9 DIGITAL IMAGE PROCESSING ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 4 9 1 INTRODUCTION AND METHODOLOGY ????????????????????????????????????????????????? 4 9 2 DIGITAL IMAGE ENHANCEMENT OF GROUNDWATER INDICATORS ????????? 4 10 APPLICATION OF REMOTE SENSING IN ESTIMATING OTHER HYDROLOGICAL PARAMETERS ??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 4 11 EMERGING DEVELOPMENTS AND APPLICATIONS ?????????????????????????????????????????? 5 GEOPHYSICAL EXPLORATION ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 5 1 INTRODUCTION ??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 5 2 ELECTRICAL RESISTIVITY METHODS ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 5 2 1 BASIC CONCEPTS AND PROCEDURES ???????????????????????????????????????????????? 5 2 2 DELINEATION OF ROCK ANISOTROPY ?????????????????????????????????????????????? 5 3 ELECTROMAGNETIC METHODS ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 5 3 1 INTRODUCTION ??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 5 3 2 EM METHOD—FREQUENCY DOMAIN ???????????????????????????????????????????? 5 3 3 TRANSIENT EM METHOD ??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 5 4 COMBINED EM-RESISTIVITY SURVEYS ?????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 5 5 COMPLEX CONDUCTIVITY MEASUREMENTS ????????????????????????????????????????????????? 5 6 SEISMIC METHODS ??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 5 6 1 BASIC CONCEPTS AND PROCEDURES ???????????????????????????????????????????????? 5 6 2 AZIMUTHAL SEISMIC REFRACTION METHOD ???????????????????????????????????? 5 7 RADON SURVEY ???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 5 8 RADAR METHODS ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 5 9 GRAVITY AND MAGNETIC METHODS ???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 5 10 MAGNETIC RESONANCE SOUNDING (MRS) ???????????????????????????????????????????????? 5 11 GEOPHYSICAL TOMOGRAPHY ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 5 12 SUBSURFACE METHODS ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 5 12 1 EXPLORATORY EXCAVATION AND DRILLING ?????????????????????????????????????? 5 12 2 GEOPHYSICAL WELL LOGGING ????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 6 GEOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION SYSTEM (GIS) ?????????????????????????????????????????????????? 6 1 INTRODUCTION ??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 6 1 1 WHY GIS FOR GROUNDWATER STUDIES? ????????????????????????????????????????? 6 2 BASICS OF GIS ???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 6 2 1 LOCATION DATA ???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 6 2 2 ATTRIBUTE DATA ??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 6 2 3 BASIC DATA STRUCTURES IN GIS ??????????????????????????????????????????????????? 6 3 GIS METHODOLOGY ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 6 3 1 DATA SELECTION AND ACQUISITION ???????????????????????????????????????????????? 6 3 2 DATA PREPROCESSING ??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 6 3 3 DATA MANAGEMENT ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 6 3 4 DATA MANIPULATION AND ANALYSIS ?????????????????????????????????????????????? 6 3 5 DATA OUTPUT ??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 6 3 6 SOURCES OF ERROR ???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 6 4 THEMATIC GIS APPLICATIONS IN GROUNDWATER ??????????????????????????????????????? 6 4 1 STUDY OF WATER-TABLE BEHAVIOUR AND SEEPAGE PATTERN ????????????? 6 4 2 EVALUATION OF WELL DISTRIBUTION IN DIFFERENT AQUIFERS ???????????? 6 4 3 GROUNDWATER EXPLORATION AND RECHARGE ???????????????????????????????? 6 4 4 CHEMICAL QUALITY AND WATER USE ??????????????????????????????????????????? 6 4 5 GROUNDWATER POLLUTION POTENTIAL AND HAZARD ASSESSMENT ???? 6 4 6 SALINITY HAZARD MAPPING ??????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 6 4 7 GIS AND GROUNDWATER MODELLING ??????????????????????????????????????????? 6 4 8 CONCLUDING REMARKS ??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? FURTHER READING ??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 7 PRINCIPLES OF GROUNDWATER FLOW AND SOLUTE TRANSPORT ???????????????????????? 7 1 GROUNDWATER FLOW ?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 7 1 1 LAMINAR AND TURBULENT FLOW ?????????????????????????????????????????????????? 7 1 2 DARCY’S LAW ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 7 1 3 GENERAL EQUATION OF FLOW ??????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 7 2 GROUNDWATER FLOW IN FRACTURED ROCKS ?????????????????????????????????????????????? 7 2 1 PARALLEL PLATE MODEL ???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 7 2 2 DOUBLE POROSITY MODEL ??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 7 2 3 EQUIVALENT POROUS MEDIUM MODEL (EPM) ????????????????????????????? 7 2 4 DISCRETE FRACTURE NETWORK MODELS ???????????????????????????????????????? 7 2 5 EQUIVALENT PARALLEL PLATE MODEL ????????????????????????????????????????????? 7 3 FLOW IN THE UNSATURATED ZONE ???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 7 3 1 FLOW THROUGH UNSATURATED POROUS MEDIA ????????????????????????????? 7 3 2 FLOW THROUGH UNSATURATED FRACTURED ROCK ??????????????????????????? 7 4 PRINCIPLES OF SOLUTE TRANSPORT IN FRACTURED MEDIA ??????????????????????????? 7 4 1 MECHANISM OF SOLUTE TRANSPORT ?????????????????????????????????????????????? 8 HYDRAULIC PROPERTIES OF ROCKS ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 8 1 BASIC CONCEPTS AND TERMINOLOGY ??????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 8 2 HYDRAULIC CONDUCTIVITY OF FRACTURED MEDIA ?????????????????????????????????????? 8 2 1 RELATIONSHIP OF HYDRAULIC CONDUCTIVITY WITH FRACTURE APERTURE AND SPACING ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 8 2 2 EFFECT OF STRESS ON PERMEABILITY ???????????????????????????????????????????? 8 2 3 RELATIONSHIP OF PERMEABILITY WITH DEPTH ??????????????????????????????? 8 2 4 INFLUENCE OF TEMPERATURE ON PERMEABILITY ????????????????????????????? 8 2 5 EFFECT OF FRACTURE SKIN ON PERMEABILITY ???????????????????????????????? 8 2 6 INTERCONNECTIVITY OF FRACTURES ???????????????????????????????????????????????? 8 3 ANISOTROPY AND HETEROGENEITY ??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 8 4 REPRESENTATIVE ELEMENTARY VOLUME (REV) ??????????????????????????????????????? 9 ESTIMATION OF HYDRAULIC PROPERTIES OF AQUIFERS ???????????????????????????????????? 9 1 LABORATORY METHODS ???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 9 1 1 INDIRECT METHODS ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 9 1 2 DIRECT METHOD ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 9 2 FIELD METHODS ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 9 2 1 PACKER TESTS ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 9 2 2 SLUG TEST ?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 9 2 3 PUMPING TESTS ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 9 2 4 PUMPING TESTS IN FRACTURED ROCK AQUIFERS ??????????????????????????? 9 2 5 CROSS-HOLE TESTS ?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 9 2 6 VARIABLE-DISCHARGE (STEP-DRAWDOWN) TEST ???????????????????????? 9 2 7 HYDRAULIC TOMOGRAPHY (HT) ????????????????????????????????????????????? FURTHER READING ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 10 TRACER AND ISOTOPE TECHNIQUES ?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 10 1 INTRODUCTION ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 10 2 TYPES OF TRACERS ?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 10 2 1 DYES AND SALTS ???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 10 2 2 ORGANIC COMPOUNDS ?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 10 3 TRACER INJECTION TESTS ?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 10 3 1 GROUNDWATER VELOCITY METHOD ??????????????????????????????????????????? 10 3 2 POINT DILUTION METHOD ??????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 10 3 3 WELL DILUTION METHOD ???????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 10 3 4 FORCED GRADIENT TRACER TESTS (FGTTS) ????????????????????????????? 10 4 ISOTOPES ???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 10 4 1 STABLE ISOTOPES ???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 10 5 RADIOACTIVE ISOTOPES ??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 10 5 1 RECHARGE ESTIMATION ?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 10 5 2 AGE DATING ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 11 GROUNDWATER QUALITY ?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 11 1 INTRODUCTION ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 11 2 EXPRESSING WATER ANALYSIS DATA ????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 11 3 ISOTOPIC COMPOSITION ??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 11 4 DISSOLVED CONSTITUENTS ???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 11 5 GRAPHICAL PRESENTATION OF CHEMICAL DATA ?????????????????????????????????????? 11 5 1 HYDROCHEMICAL (ISOCONE) MAPS ????????????????????????????????????????? 11 5 2 HYDROCHEMICAL PATTERN DIAGRAMS ?????????????????????????????????????? 11 6 MODIFICATION OF CHEMICAL CHARACTERS OF GROUNDWATER ?????????????????? 11 6 1 ION EXCHANGE ?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 11 6 2 MEMBRANE EFFECT ???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 11 6 3 SULPHATE REDUCTION ???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 11 7 HYDROCHEMICAL ZONING AND HYDROCHEMICAL FACIES ???????????????????????? 11 7 1 HYDROCHEMICAL ZONING ??????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 11 7 2 HYDROCHEMICAL FACIES ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 11 8 QUALITY CRITERIA FOR VARIOUS USES ??????????????????????????????????????????????????? 11 8 1 DOMESTIC USE ?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 11 8 2 QUALITY CRITERIA FOR OTHER USES ????????????????????????????????????????? 12 GROUNDWATER CONTAMINATION ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 12 1 INTRODUCTION ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 12 2 MOVEMENT OF CONTAMINANTS ??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 12 3 SOURCES OF GROUNDWATER CONTAMINATION ???????????????????????????????????????? 12 3 1 GEOGENIC SOURCES ??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 12 3 2 ANTHROPOGENIC SOURCES ?????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 12 3 3 RADIOACTIVE WASTE DISPOSAL ?????????????????????????????????????????????? 12 4 ORGANIC CONTAMINANTS ???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 12 4 1 TRANSPORT OF LNAPLS ???????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 12 4 2 TRANSPORT OF DNAPLS ???????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 12 4 3 REMEDIATION ??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 12 5 MISCELLANEOUS SOURCES OF GROUNDWATER CONTAMINATION ??????????????? 12 6 EVALUATION OF CONTAMINATION POTENTIAL AND HAZARD ?????????????????????? 13 HYDROGEOLOGY OF CRYSTALLINE ROCKS ??????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 13 1 INTRODUCTION ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 13 2 LANDFORMS AND DRAINAGE ???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 13 3 GROUNDWATER OCCURRENCE ???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 13 3 1 WEATHERED PROFILE ??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 13 3 2 FRACTURED MEDIA ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 13 4 HYDRAULIC CHARACTERISTICS ???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 13 5 WATER WELLS ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 13 5 1 WELL YIELDS ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 13 5 2 OPTIMUM DEPTH OF WELLS ?????????????????????????????????????????????????? 13 6 ASSESSMENT OF GROUNDWATER RECHARGE ??????????????????????????????????????????? 13 7 GROUNDWATER QUALITY ??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 13 7 1 EFFECT OF LITHOLOGY ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 13 7 2 HYDROCHEMICAL ZONING ??????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 13 7 3 GROUNDWATER CONTAMINATION ?????????????????????????????????????????????? 14 HYDROGEOLOGY OF VOLCANIC ROCKS ???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 14 1 WEATHERING, LANDFORM AND DRAINAGE ????????????????????????????????????????????? 14 2 HYDROGEOLOGY ?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 14 2 1 PLATEAU BASALTS ??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 14 2 2 VOLCANIC ISLANDS—SUBMARINE ERUPTIONS ?????????????????????????? 14 2 3 DYKES AND SILLS ?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 14 3 GROUNDWATER OCCURRENCE ???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 14 4 HYDRAULIC CHARACTERISTICS ???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 14 5 GROUNDWATER DEVELOPMENT ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 14 6 GROUNDWATER RECHARGE ???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 14 7 GROUNDWATER QUALITY ??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 15 HYDROGEOLOGY OF CARBONATE ROCKS ???????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 15 1 INTRODUCTION ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 15 2 WEATHERING AND LANDFORMS—THE KARST ???????????????????????????????????????? 15 3 SPRINGS ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 15 4 HYDROGEOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS ????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 15 5 ASSESSMENT OF GROUNDWATER RECHARGE ??????????????????????????????????????????? 15 6 GROUNDWATER QUALITY ?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 15 7 GROUNDWATER DEVELOPMENT ?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 16 HYDROGEOLOGY OF CLASTIC FORMATIONS ????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 16 1 UNCONSOLIDATED SEDIMENTS ?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 16 1 1 FLUVIAL DEPOSITS ?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 16 1 2 GLACIAL DEPOSITS ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 16 2 CONSOLIDATED SEDIMENTS ?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 16 2 1 SANDSTONES ?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 16 2 2 SHALES AND SILTSTONES ?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 16 2 3 GROUNDWATER DEVELOPMENT ????????????????????????????????????????????????? 16 3 WATER QUALITY ?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 17 WATER-WELLS ??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 17 1 TYPES OF WELLS ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 17 1 1 DUGWELLS ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 17 1 2 BOREWELLS ???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 17 1 3 HORIZONTAL BOREWELLS ?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 17 1 4 DUG-CUM-BOREWELL AND COLLECTOR WELL ?????????????????????????????? 17 1 5 INFILTRATION GALLERIES (QANAT) ?????????????????????????????????????????? 17 2 CRITERIA FOR SITING WELLS ?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 17 3 METHODS OF WELL CONSTRUCTION ???????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 17 3 1 CABLE TOOL METHOD ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 17 3 2 DIRECT CIRCULATION HYDRAULIC ROTARY DRILLING ??????????????????? 17 3 3 REVERSE CIRCULATION ROTARY METHOD ?????????????????????????????????? 17 3 4 AIR ROTARY METHOD ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 17 4 WELL DEVELOPMENT ??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 17 4 1 DEVELOPMENT TECHNIQUES IN UNCONSOLIDATED FORMATIONS ?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 17 4 2 DEVELOPMENT OF WELLS IN HARD ROCKS ??????????????????????????????? 17 5 HYDRAULIC CHARACTERISTICS OF WELLS ????????????????????????????????????????????????? 18 GEOTHERMAL RESERVOIRS AND HOT DRY ROCK SYSTEMS ??????????????????????????? 18 1 INTRODUCTION ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 18 2 HOT DRY ROCK (HDR) SYSTEMS ??????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 18 3 FLOW CHARACTERISTICS ???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 18 4 RESERVOIR PROPERTIES ???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 18 4 1 SINGLE WELL TESTS ???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 18 4 2 INTERFERENCE TESTS ??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 18 4 3 TRACER TESTS ???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 18 5 GROUND SUBSIDENCE ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 18 6 WATER QUALITY ?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 18 7 ORIGIN OF GEOTHERMAL WATERS ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 19 GROUNDWATER MODELING ??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 19 1 INTRODUCTION ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 19 2 DEFINING THE MODEL’S PURPOSE ???????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 19 3 MODEL CONCEPTUALIZATION ???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 19 4 SETTING-UP A NUMERICAL GROUNDWATER MODEL ????????????????????????????????? 19 4 1 MODEL GRID ???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 19 4 2 DEFINING MODEL BOUNDARIES ?????????????????????????????????????????????? 19 4 3 INPUTTING MODEL PARAMETERS ????????????????????????????????????????????? 19 5 MODELING OF HOMOGENOUS POROUS AQUIFER ????????????????????????????????????? 19 5 1 MATHEMATICAL FORMULATION ???????????????????????????????????????????????? 19 5 2 SOLUTION OF MATHEMATICAL EQUATION ?????????????????????????????????? 19 5 3 MODELING SOFTWARE ???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 19 5 4 MODEL CALIBRATION AND VALIDATION ???????????????????????????????????? 19 5 5 CASE STUDIES ?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 19 6 MODELING OF FRACTURED ROCK AQUIFER SYSTEM ??????????????????????????????? 19 6 1 GROUNDWATER FLOW EQUATION FOR PARALLEL PLATE MODEL ????? 19 6 2 PARTICLE TRACKING APPROACH FOR SOLUTE TRANSPORT ???????????? 19 6 3 DISCRETE FRACTURE NETWORK (DFN) MODEL ???????????????????????? 19 6 4 DUAL POROSITY (DP) MODEL ???????????????????????????????????????????????? 19 6 5 STOCHASTIC CONTINUUM (SC) MODEL ??????????????????????????????????? 19 6 6 COMPUTER CODES ???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 19 6 7 CASE STUDIES ?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 19 7 CONCLUDING REMARKS ??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 20 ASSESSMENT AND MANAGEMENT OF GROUNDWATER RESOURCES ????????????????? 20 1 INTRODUCTION ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 20 2 WATER BUDGET AND GROUNDWATER BALANCE ??????????????????????????????????????? 20 2 1 HYDROLOGICAL BALANCE ???????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 20 2 2 GROUNDWATER BALANCE ???????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 20 2 3 ESTIMATION OF VARIOUS COMPONENTS OF GROUNDWATER RECHARGE ????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 20 3 WORLD’S WATER RESOURCES ???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 20 4 GROUNDWATER RESOURCES OF INDIA ????????????????????????????????????????????????????