REMOTE SENSING IN NORTHERN HYDROLOGY: MEASURING ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGE
1 Introduction 1 Surveying and Mapping in Transition to Geoinformation 2 Geodesy 2 Surveying 6 Remote Sensing 7 Photogrammetry 9 Geographic Information Systems (GIS) 10 Current Status of Mapping in the World 12 Integration of Geoinformation Technologies 13 United Nations Initiative on Global Geospatial Information Management 13 2 Remote Sensing 19 Electromagnetic Radiation 19 Basic Laws 19 Radiometric Quantities 21 Electromagnetic Spectrum 21 Energy–Matter Interaction 21 Atmospheric Transmission 21 Energy Interaction at the Object 24 Interaction of Energy in Plants 26 Energy Arriving at the Sensor 26 Sensor Components 28 Optical Imaging 28 Photographic Process 30 Color and Color Photography 32 Digital Imaging 35 Imaging Sensors 36 Aerial Survey Cameras 36 Image Quality of Aerial Survey Cameras 47 Optomechanical Scanners 59 Laser Scanners 61 Optoelectronic Scanners 63 Image Spectrometers 65 Oblique Imaging 66 Radar Imaging 67 Polarization of a Radar Beam 72 Radar Interferometry 73 Radar Imaging Modes 76 Platforms 79 Aircraft 79 Satellites 82 Ground Resolution versus Repeatability 83 Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) 89 Image Interpretation 89 The Human Eye 89 Stereovision 90 Visual Interpretation of Images 96 Image Processing 96 Raster Scanning of Photographic Images 96 Gray Level Changes 97 Filtering 100 Geometric Resampling 104 Multispectral Classification 106 Classification Accuracy 111 Image Fusion 112 Remote Sensing Applications 113 Meteorology and Climatology 121 Ozone 121 Cloud Mapping 121 Rainfall 123 Wind 125 Weather Prediction 125 Climate Studies 125 Oceanography 125 Ocean Productivity 126 Ocean Currents 127 Sea Ice 127 Bathymetry 129 Environment 129 Hazardous Waste 129 Plumes 131 Oil Spills 131 Nonrenewable Resources 132 Mineral Exploration 133 Oil Exploration 133 Renewable Resources 134 Land Cover and Land Use 134 Vegetation 135 Natural Hazards 138 Earthquakes 138 Landslides 138 Land Subsidence 138 Volcanoes 138 Floods 139 Forest and Grass Fires 139 3 Photogrammetry 143 Evolution of Photogrammetry 143 Single-Image Photogrammetry 143 Analogue Stereo Photogrammetry 150 Measuring Marks 157 Analytical Photogrammetry 174 Digital Photogrammetry 181 Principles of Analytical and Digital Photogrammetry 183 Coordinate Transformations between Image and Terrain 183 Image Coordinates and Local Cartesian Object Coordinates 184 Transverse Mercator and Geographic Coordinates 188 Geographic Coordinates and Geocentric Cartesian Coordinates 190 Transformation between Geocentric and Local Cartesian Coordinates 191 Space Intersection 193 Space Resection 195 Aerial Triangulation 200 Relative Orientation 208 Absolute Orientation 210 Digital Photogrammetric Operations 213 SIDIP 213 DPLX 213 DPCOR 217 BLUH 217 LISA-FOTO 221 Image Matching 222 Semiglobal Matching 228 Digital Elevation Models 230 Orthoimage Generation 233 LISA-Basic 238 Racurs PHOTOMOD 241 Airborne Laser Scanning 256 4 Geographic Information Systems 261 Introduction 261 Hardware Components 264 Input Devices 265 Processing and Storage Devices 267 Output Devices 269 Software Components 269 Operating Systems 269 Programming Languages 270 Networking Software 270 Graphic Standards 271 GIS Application Software 271 Vector Systems 272 Object Representation 272 Vector Geometry 277 Raster Systems 282 Databases 283 GIS Systems 285 GIS and the Internet 286 Esri’s ArcGIS 287 GIS Applications 339 Global Applications 339 National Applications and Spatial Data Infrastructure 340 Local Applications 342 Cadastral Applications 342 Facility Management 349 City Models 351 Spatial Analysis Applications 360 Emergency GIS over Crisis Areas 362 General Spatial Information Systems 365 5 Positioning Systems 381 The Global Positioning System (GPS) 381 GPS Signals 381 Differential GPS 384 GPS Satellite Geometry and GPS Software 388 Accuracy Augmentation Systems 389 GSM Mobile Phone Location 389 6 Cost Considerations 393 Costs of Aerial Photography, Orthophotography, and Topographic Line Mapping 394 GPS-Supported Ground Surveys 397 Digital Elevation Models 398 Aerial Triangulation versus Direct Sensor Orientation 398 Mapping from Space 399 Automated Feature Extraction 404 7 Technological Changes 407