VOLCANIC ROCK MECHANICS
CONTENTS GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING—A HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE 1 1 INTRODUCTION GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING PRIOR TO THE 18TH CENTURY PRECLASSICAL PERIOD OF SOIL MECHANICS (1700–1776) CLASSICAL SOIL MECHANICS—PHASE I (1776–1856) CLASSICAL SOIL MECHANICS—PHASE II (1856–1910) MODERN SOIL MECHANICS (1910–1927) GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING AFTER END OF AN ERA REFERENCES ORIGIN OF SOIL AND GRAIN SIZE INTRODUCTION ROCK CYCLE AND THE ORIGIN OF SOIL ROCK-FORMING MINERALS, ROCK AND ROCK STRUCTURES SOIL-PARTICLE SIZE CLAY MINERALS SPECIFIC GRAVITY (GS) MECHANICAL ANALYSIS OF SOIL PARTICLE-SIZE DISTRIBUTION CURVE PARTICLE SHAPE 2 10 SUMMARY PROBLEMS WEIGHT–VOLUME RELATIONSHIPS RELATIONSHIPS AMONG UNIT WEIGHT, VOID RATIO, MOISTURE CONTENT, AND SPECIFIC GRAVITY RELATIONSHIPS AMONG UNIT WEIGHT, POROSITY, AND MOISTURE CONTENT RELATIVE DENSITY COMMENTS ON EMAX AND EMIN CORRELATIONS BETWEEN EMAX, EMIN, EMAX 2 EMIN, AND MEDIAN GRAIN SIZE (D50) SUMMARY PLASTICITY AND STRUCTURE OF SOIL LIQUID LIMIT (LL) PLASTIC LIMIT (PL) PLASTICITY INDEX SHRINKAGE LIMIT (SL) LIQUIDITY INDEX AND CONSISTENCY INDEX ACTIVITY PLASTICITY CHART SOIL STRUCTURE 4 10 SUMMARY CLASSIFICATION OF SOIL TEXTURAL CLASSIFICATION CLASSIFICATION BY ENGINEERING BEHAVIOR AASHTO CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM UNIFIED SOIL CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM COMPARISON BETWEEN THE AASHTO AND UNIFIED SYSTEMS SOIL COMPACTION COMPACTION—GENERAL PRINCIPLES STANDARD PROCTOR TEST FACTORS AFFECTING COMPACTION MODIFIED PROCTOR TEST EMPIRICAL RELATIONSHIPS STRUCTURE OF COMPACTED CLAY SOIL EFFECT OF COMPACTION ON COHESIVE SOIL PROPERTIES FIELD COMPACTION 6 10 SPECIFICATIONS FOR FIELD COMPACTION 6 11 DETERMINATION OF FIELD UNIT WEIGHT OF COMPACTION 6 12 EVALUATION OF SOILS AS COMPACTION MATERIAL 6 13 SPECIAL COMPACTION TECHNIQUES 6 14 SUMMARY PERMEABILITY BERNOULLI’S EQUATION DARCY’S LAW HYDRAULIC CONDUCTIVITY LABORATORY DETERMINATION OF HYDRAULIC CONDUCTIVITY RELATIONSHIPS FOR HYDRAULIC CONDUCTIVITY—GRANULAR SOIL RELATIONSHIPS FOR HYDRAULIC CONDUCTIVITY—COHESIVE SOILS DIRECTIONAL VARIATION OF PERMEABILITY EQUIVALENT HYDRAULIC CONDUCTIVITY IN STRATIFIED SOIL 7 10 PERMEABILITY TEST IN THE FIELD BY PUMPING FROM WELLS 7 11 PERMEABILITY TEST IN AUGER HOLES 7 12 HYDRAULIC CONDUCTIVITY OF COMPACTED CLAYEY SOILS 7 13 MOISTURE CONTENT—UNIT WEIGHT CRITERIA FOR CLAY LINER CONSTRUCTION 7 14 SUMMARY SEEPAGE LAPLACE’S EQUATION OF CONTINUITY FLOW NETS SEEPAGE CALCULATION FROM A FLOW NET FLOW NETS IN ANISOTROPIC SOIL MATHEMATICAL SOLUTION FOR SEEPAGE UPLIFT PRESSURE UNDER HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES SEEPAGE THROUGH AN EARTH DAM ON AN IMPERVIOUS BASE L CASAGRANDE’S SOLUTION FOR SEEPAGE THROUGH AN EARTH DAM 8 10 PAVLOVSKY’S SOLUTION FOR SEEPAGE THROUGH AN EARTH DAM 8 11 FILTER DESIGN 8 12 SUMMARY IN SITU STRESSES STRESSES IN SATURATED SOIL WITHOUT SEEPAGE STRESSES IN SATURATED SOIL WITH UPWARD SEEPAGE STRESSES IN SATURATED SOIL WITH DOWNWARD SEEPAGE SEEPAGE FORCE HEAVING IN SOIL DUE TO FLOW AROUND SHEET PILES USE OF FILTERS TO INCREASE THE FACTOR OF SAFETY AGAINST HEAVE EFFECTIVE STRESS IN PARTIALLY SATURATED SOIL CAPILLARY RISE IN SOILS 9 10 EFFECTIVE STRESS IN THE ZONE OF CAPILLARY RISE 9 11 SUMMARY STRESSES IN A SOIL MASS NORMAL AND SHEAR STRESSES ON A PLANE THE POLE METHOD OF FINDING STRESSES ALONG A PLANE STRESSES CAUSED BY A POINT LOAD VERTICAL STRESS CAUSED BY A VERTICAL LINE LOAD VERTICAL STRESS CAUSED BY A HORIZONTAL LINE LOAD VERTICAL STRESS CAUSED BY A VERTICAL STRIP LOAD (FINITE WIDTH AND INFINITE LENGTH) VERTICAL STRESS CAUSED BY A HORIZONTAL STRIP LOAD LINEARLY INCREASING VERTICAL LOADING ON AN INFINITE STRIP 10 10 VERTICAL STRESS DUE TO EMBANKMENT LOADING 10 11 VERTICAL STRESS BELOW THE CENTER OF A UNIFORMLY LOADED CIRCULAR AREA 10 12 VERTICAL STRESS AT ANY POINT BELOW A UNIFORMLY LOADED CIRCULAR AREA 10 13 VERTICAL STRESS CAUSED BY A RECTANGULARLY LOADED AREA 10 14 INFLUENCE CHART FOR VERTICAL PRESSURE 10 15 WESTERGAARD’S SOLUTION FOR VERTICAL STRESS DUE TO A POINT LOAD 10 16 STRESS DISTRIBUTION FOR WESTERGAARD MATERIAL 10 17 SUMMARY COMPRESSIBILITY OF SOIL CONTACT PRESSURE AND SETTLEMENT PROFILE RELATIONS FOR ELASTIC SETTLEMENT CALCULATION IMPROVED RELATIONSHIP FOR ELASTIC SETTLEMENT FUNDAMENTALS OF CONSOLIDATION ONE-DIMENSIONAL LABORATORY CONSOLIDATION TEST VOID RATIO–PRESSURE PLOTS NORMALLY CONSOLIDATED AND OVERCONSOLIDATED CLAYS EFFECT OF DISTURBANCE ON VOID RATIO–PRESSURE RELATIONSHIP 11 10 CALCULATION OF SETTLEMENT FROM ONE-DIMENSIONAL PRIMARY CONSOLIDATION 11 11 CORRELATIONS FOR COMPRESSION INDEX (CC) 11 12 CORRELATIONS FOR SWELL INDEX (CS) 11 13 SECONDARY CONSOLIDATION SETTLEMENT 11 14 TIME RATE OF CONSOLIDATION 11 15 CONSTRUCTION TIME CORRECTION OF CONSOLIDATION SETTLEMENT 11 16 DETERMINATION OF COEFFICIENT OF CONSOLIDATION 11 17 CALCULATION OF CONSOLIDATION SETTLEMENT UNDER A FOUNDATION 11 18 METHODS FOR ACCELERATING CONSOLIDATION SETTLEMENT 11 19 SUMMARY SHEAR STRENGTH OF SOIL MOHR–COULOMB FAILURE CRITERION INCLINATION OF THE PLANE OF FAILURE CAUSED BY SHEAR LABORATORY TEST FOR DETERMINATION OF SHEAR STRENGTH PARAMETERS DIRECT SHEAR TEST DRAINED DIRECT SHEAR TEST ON SATURATED SAND AND CLAY GENERAL COMMENTS ON DIRECT SHEAR TEST TRIAXIAL SHEAR TEST-GENERAL CONSOLIDATED-DRAINED TRIAXIAL TEST 12 10 CONSOLIDATED-UNDRAINED TRIAXIAL TEST 12 11 UNCONSOLIDATED-UNDRAINED TRIAXIAL TEST 12 12 UNCONFINED COMPRESSION TEST ON SATURATED CLAY 12 13 EMPIRICAL RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN UNDRAINED COHESION (CU) AND EFFECTIVE OVERBURDEN PRESSURE (O9) 12 14 SENSITIVITY AND THIXOTROPY OF CLAY 12 15 STRENGTH ANISOTROPY IN CLAY 12 16 VANE SHEAR TEST 12 17 OTHER METHODS FOR DETERMINING UNDRAINED SHEAR STRENGTH 12 18 SHEAR STRENGTH OF UNSATURATED COHESIVE SOILS 12 19 SUMMARY LATERAL EARTH PRESSURE: AT-REST, RANKINE, AND COULOMB AT-REST, ACTIVE, AND PASSIVE PRESSURES EARTH PRESSURE AT-REST EARTH PRESSURE AT-REST FOR PARTIALLY SUBMERGED SOIL LATERAL PRESSURE ON UNYEILDING RETAINING WALLS FROM SURCHARGES—BASED ON THEORY OF ELASTICITY RANKINE’S THEORY OF ACTIVE PRESSURE THEORY OF RANKINE’S PASSIVE PRESSURE YIELDING OF WALL OF LIMITED HEIGHT RANKINE ACTIVE AND PASSIVE PRESSURE WITH SLOPING BACKFILL 13 10 A GENERALIZED CASE FOR RANKINE ACTIVE AND PASSIVE PRESSURE—GRANULAR BACKFILL 13 11 DIAGRAMS FOR LATERAL EARTH-PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION AGAINST RETAINING WALLS WITH VERTICAL BACK 13 12 COULOMB’S ACTIVE PRESSURE 13 13 COULOMB’S PASSIVE PRESSURE 13 14 ACTIVE FORCE ON RETAINING WALLS WITH EARTHQUAKE FORCES 13 15 COMMON TYPES OF RETAINING WALLS IN THE FIELD 13 16 SUMMARY LATERAL EARTH PRESSURE: CURVED FAILURE SURFACE RETAINING WALLS WITH FRICTION PROPERTIES OF A LOGARITHMIC SPIRAL PROCEDURE FOR DETERMINATION OF PASSIVE EARTH PRESSURE (PP)—COHESIONLESS BACKFILL COEFFICIENT OF PASSIVE EARTH PRESSURE (KP) CAQUOT AND KERISEL SOLUTION FOR PASSIVE EARTH PRESSURE (GRANULAR BACKFILL) PASSIVE FORCE ON WALLS WITH EARTHQUAKE FORCES BRACED CUTS—GENERAL DETERMINATION OF ACTIVE THRUST ON BRACING SYSTEMS OF OPEN CUTS—GRANULAR SOIL 14 10 DETERMINATION OF ACTIVE THRUST ON BRACING SYSTEMS FOR CUTS—COHESIVE SOIL 14 11 PRESSURE VARIATION FOR DESIGN OF SHEETINGS, STRUTS, AND WALES 14 12 SUMMARY SLOPE STABILITY FACTOR OF SAFETY STABILITY OF INFINITE SLOPES INFINITE SLOPE WITH STEADY-STATE SEEPAGE FINITE SLOPES—GENERAL ANALYSIS OF FINITE SLOPES WITH PLANE FAILURE SURFACES (CULMANN’S METHOD) ANALYSIS OF FINITE SLOPES WITH CIRCULAR FAILURE SURFACES—GENERAL MASS PROCEDURE—SLOPES IN HOMOGENEOUS CLAY SOIL WITH 5 SLOPES IN CLAY SOIL WITH 5 0; AND CU INCREASING WITH DEPTH 15 10 MASS PROCEDURE—SLOPES IN HOMOGENEOUS C9 2 9 SOIL 15 11 ORDINARY METHOD OF SLICES 15 12 BISHOP’S SIMPLIFIED METHOD OF SLICES 15 13 STABILITY ANALYSIS BY METHOD OF SLICES FOR STEADY-STATE SEEPAGE 15 14 SOLUTIONS FOR STEADY-STATE SEEPAGE 15 15 FLUCTUATION OF FACTOR OF SAFETY OF SLOPES IN CLAY EMBANKMENT ON SATURATED CLAY 15 16 SUMMARY SOIL BEARING CAPACITY FOR SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS ULTIMATE SOIL-BEARING CAPACITY FOR SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS TERZAGHI’S ULTIMATE BEARING CAPACITY EQUATION EFFECT OF GROUNDWATER TABLE GENERAL BEARING CAPACITY EQUATION ULTIMATE LOAD FOR SHALLOW FOOTINGS UNDER ECCENTRIC LOAD (ONE-WAY ECCENTRICITY) CONTINUOUS FOOTING UNDER ECCENTRICALLY INCLINED LOAD BEARING CAPACITY OF SAND BASED ON SETTLEMENT 16 10 SUMMARY SUBSOIL EXPLORATION PLANNING FOR SOIL EXPLORATION BORING METHODS COMMON SAMPLING METHODS SAMPLE DISTURBANCE N IN COHESIVE SOIL CORRELATIONS FOR STANDARD PENETRATION NUMBER IN GRANULAR SOIL OTHER IN SITU TESTS VANE SHEAR TEST 17 10 BOREHOLE PRESSUREMETER TEST 17 11 CONE PENETRATION TEST 17 12 ROCK CORING 17 13 SOIL EXPLORATION REPORT 17 14 SUMMARY AN INTRODUCTION TO GEOSYNTHETICS GEOTEXTILE GEOGRID GEOMEMBRANE GEONET GEOSYNTHETIC CLAY LINER ANSWERS TO SELECTED PROBLEMS