EMPIRICAL METALLOGENY
1 Introduction 1 2 Representative examples of mineral system models 3 21 Definition of mineral systems 3 22 Example of porphyry CuAuMo system 5 221 Introduction 5 222 Development of a coherent genetic model 6 223 A coherent mineral system model 7 224 Exploration summary 15 23 Example of orogenic gold system 18 231 Introduction 18 232 Development of a holistic genetic model 19 233 A coherent mineral system model for orogenic gold deposits 21 234 Exploration overview 25 3 Summary mineral systems models for relevant systems 31 31 Introduction 31 32 Mineral systems involving mineralization processes in sedimentary basins 36 321 Paleoplacer gold (U) system 36 322 Unconformity-type uranium systems 38 323 Mississippi Valley type PbZnBa system 39 324 SEDEX ZnPbCu system 40 325 Zambian-type CuCo system 41 326 Broken Hill-type PbZnAg system 42 33 Submarine hydrothermal systems 44 331 Iron enrichment in banded iron formation systems 44 332 Sediment-hosted manganese systems 45 333 Volcanogenic massive sulfide CuZnPb (AuAg) system 46 34 Magmatic hydrothermal systems 47 341 Greisen/vein/replacement SnW system 47 342 Intrusion-related gold (W) system 48 343 Distal Carlin-type gold system 49 344 Kiruna-type FeP system 52 345 Ironoxide coppergold system 54 35 Magmatic systems with hydrothermal fluid involvement 56 351 Carbonatite-related CuP and REENb systems 56 352 Kimberlite/lamproite diamond system 58 36 Magmatic systems 60 361 Lithium pegmatite (Ta, Cs) systems 60 362 Giant-layered intrusion-hosted PGECrFeTiV system 62 363 Mafic intrusion-hosted NiCuPGE system 64 37 Summary 65 4 The critical role of subduction 67 41 Introduction 67 42 Systems with direct associations to subduction in convergent margins 68 421 Introduction 68 422 Porphyry-high sulfidation-skarn CuAu6Mo systems in arcs 70 423 Granite-related tin and tungsten deposits in continental back-arcs 71 424 Volcanogenic massive sulfide CuZnPb systems in arcs 72 425 Epithermal AuAg systems in back-arc basins 72 426 Preservation potential 72 43 Orogenic gold systems in transpressional settings 73 44 Indirect association with late-subduction orogenic collapse or rifting 73 441 Introduction 73 442 Intrusion-related gold systems 74 443 Carlin-type gold systems 75 45 Indirect association with subduction-related metasomatized lithosphere 75 451 Introduction 75 452 The Jiaodong orogenic gold system 76 46 Indirect association with magmatic systems derived from subduction-related lithosphere metasomatism 77 461 Introduction 77 462 Magmatic copper, iron, niobium, phosphate, rare earth elements (REE), and diamond deposits 79 463 Magmatic-hydrothermal CuAu systems 81 47 Summary 82 5 Mineral systems, tectonics, and the supercontinent cycle 83 51 Introduction 83 52 Evolution of the early Earth 84 521 Early Earth tectonics 84 522 Mantle overturns 85 523 Early plate tectonics 87 524 Formation of cratons 89 525 Heterogeneous Precambrian metallogeny of Archean cratons 92 526 Unique Archean to Paleoproterozoic mineral systems 94 53 Supercontinent cycles 96 531 Assembly and dispersal of supercontinents 96 532 Supercontinents through Earth history 99 54 Mineral systems and their relationship to the supercontinent system 99 541 Critical parameters of mineral systems 99 542 Mineral systems formed in convergent margin environments 100 543 Magmatic and magmatic-hydrothermal systems formed near craton margins 105 55 Mineral deposits as sensitive indicators of Earth evolution 109 551 Coupled metallogenic and supercontinent cycles 109 56 Summary 113 6 The anomalous Boring Billion 115 61 Introduction 115 62 Overview of the Boring Billion 116 63 Metallogeny before and during the Boring Billion 121 631 Introduction 121 632 Early Precambrian mineral systems absent or rare in the Boring Billion 122 633 Mineral systems extending into the Boring Billion 128 634 Mineral systems largely confined to the Boring Billion 131 64 The not-so-boring metallogeny of the Boring Billion 136 65 The critical conjunction between metallogeny and tectonic evolution 138 66 Summary 142 7 Paleoproterozoic great oxidation event 143 71 Evolution of the atmospherehydrospherebiosphere system 143 711 Earth climate and evolution of life 143 712 Great oxygenation events 145 72 Metallogeny related to the Paleoproterozoic GOE 145 721 Valency implications for subsequent mineral systems 145 722 The great period of formation of iron deposits in banded iron formation systems 146 723 Evolution of manganese deposits 147 724 Evolution of uranium deposits 148 73 Summary: redox reflections of atmosphere evolution 149 8 Cambrian explosion of life 151 81 Neoproterozoic to Phanerozoic hydrospherebiosphere system evolution 151 82 Contrasting temporal pattern of SEDEX and MVT systems 152 83 Importance of abundant organisms 154 84 Potential importance of hydrocarbons 155 9 The role of craton and thick lithosphere margins 157 91 Introduction 157 92 Longevity of cratons and their margins 158 93 Modification of craton margins and underlying lithosphere 160 931 Structural modification 160 94 Metasomatic alteration of mantle lithosphere 161 95 Magmatic deposits derived from metasomatized lithosphere 165 951 Carbonatite-related Cu and P deposits 165 952 Carbonatite-related REENb deposits 166 953 Kiruna-type FeP deposits 168 954 Lamproite-associated diamonds 168 96 Magmatic-hydrothermal deposits from metasomatized lithosphere 169 961 Iron oxidecoppergold systems 169 962 Intrusion-related gold deposits 172 963 Carlin-type gold systems 174 97 Hydrothermal deposits derived from metasomatized lithosphere 175 971 Jiaodong and other Chinese orogenic gold deposits 175 972 Other orogenic gold deposits on craton margins 176 98 Magmatic systems related to intrusion via trans-lithosphere structures 179 981 Intrusion-related nickelcopperPGE systems 179 982 Anorthosite-hosted ilmenite deposits 181 99 Hydrothermal deposits related to deformation on craton margins 182 991 BIF-hosted iron ores 182 910 Sediment-hosted deposits on craton and thick lithosphere margins 183 9101 Zambian copper belt-type deposits 183 9102 SEDEX zincleadcopper systems 185 911 Diversity of mineral systems along craton and thick lithosphere margins 187 912 Summary 190 10 Implications for global exploration 193 101 Introduction 193 102 The role and appropriate scale of conceptual targeting 198 103 Most productive time periods for specific mineral systems 200 104 Association with craton and thick lithosphere margins 207 105 Detection of lithosphere scale structures connected to mineral systems 209 106 Summary 210 References 211