ESSENTIAL IMAGE PROCESSING AND GIS FOR REMOTE SENSING
CONTENTS PART ONE IMAGE PROCESSING 1 DIGITAL IMAGE AND DISPLAY WHAT IS A DIGITAL IMAGE? DIGITAL IMAGE DISPLAY MONOCHROMATIC DISPLAY TRISTIMULUS COLOUR THEORY AND RGB COLOUR DISPLAY PSEUDO COLOUR DISPLAY SOME KEY POINTS QUESTIONS 2 POINT OPERATIONS (CONTRAST ENHANCEMENT) HISTOGRAM MODI?CATION AND LOOKUP TABLE LINEAR CONTRAST ENHANCEMENT DERIVATION OF A LINEAR FUNCTION FROM TWO POINTS LOGARITHMIC AND EXPONENTIAL CONTRAST ENHANCEMENT LOGARITHMIC CONTRAST ENHANCEMENT EXPONENTIAL CONTRAST ENHANCEMENT HISTOGRAM EQUALIZATION HISTOGRAM MATCHING AND GAUSSIAN STRETCH BALANCE CONTRAST ENHANCEMENT TECHNIQUE *DERIVATION OF COEF?CIENTS, A, B AND C FOR A BCET PARABOLIC FUNCTION CLIPPING IN CONTRAST ENHANCEMENT TIPS FOR INTERACTIVE CONTRAST ENHANCEMENT 3 ALGEBRAIC OPERATIONS (MULTI-IMAGE POINT OPERATIONS) IMAGE ADDITION IMAGE SUBTRACTION (DIFFERENCING) IMAGE MULTIPLICATION IMAGE DIVISION (RATIO) VEGETATION INDICES IRON OXIDE RATIO INDEX TM CLAY (HYDRATED) MINERAL RATIO INDEX STANDARDIZATION AND LOGARITHMIC RESIDUAL SIMULATED RE?ECTANCE ANALYSIS OF SOLAR RADIATION BALANCE AND SIMULATED IRRADIANCE SIMULATED SPECTRAL RE?ECTANCE IMAGE CALCULATION OF WEIGHTS EXAMPLE: ATM SIMULATED RE?ECTANCE COLOUR COMPOSITE COMPARISON WITH RATIO AND LOGARITHMIC RESIDUAL TECHNIQUES SUMMARY 4 FILTERING AND NEIGHBOURHOOD PROCESSING FOURIER TRANSFORM: UNDERSTANDING ?LTERING IN IMAGE FREQUENCY CONCEPTS OF CONVOLUTION FOR IMAGE ?LTERING LOW-PASS ?LTERS (SMOOTHING) GAUSSIAN ?LTER THE K NEAREST MEAN ?LTER MEDIAN ?LTER ADAPTIVE MEDIAN ?LTER THE K NEAREST MEDIAN ?LTER MODE (MAJORITY) ?LTER CONDITIONAL SMOOTHING ?LTER HIGH-PASS ?LTERS (EDGE ENHANCEMENT) GRADIENT ?LTERS LAPLACIAN ?LTERS EDGE-SHARPENING ?LTERS LOCAL CONTRAST ENHANCEMENT *FFT SELECTIVE AND ADAPTIVE ?LTERING FFT SELECTIVE ?LTERING FFT ADAPTIVE ?LTERING 5 RGB–IHS TRANSFORMATION COLOUR COORDINATE TRANSFORMATION IHS DECORRELATION STRETCH DIRECT DECORRELATION STRETCH TECHNIQUE HUE RGB COLOUR COMPOSITES *DERIVATION OF RGB–IHS AND IHS–RGB TRANSFORMATIONS BASED ON 3D GEOMETRY OF THE RGB COLOUR CUBE DERIVATION OF RGB–IHS TRANSFORMATION DERIVATION OF IHS–RGB TRANSFORMATION *MATHEMATICAL PROOF OF DDS AND ITS PROPERTIES MATHEMATICAL PROOF OF DDS THE PROPERTIES OF DDS 6 IMAGE FUSION TECHNIQUES RGB–IHS TRANSFORMATION AS A TOOL FOR DATA FUSION BROVEY TRANSFORM (INTENSITY MODULATION) SMOOTHING-?LTER-BASED INTENSITY MODULATION THE PRINCIPLE OF SFIM MERITS AND LIMITATION OF SFIM 7 PRINCIPAL COMPONENT ANALYSIS PRINCIPLE OF PCA PRINCIPAL COMPONENT IMAGES AND COLOUR COMPOSITION SELECTIVE PCA FOR PC COLOUR COMPOSITION DIMENSIONALITY AND COLOUR CONFUSION REDUCTION SPECTRAL CONTRAST MAPPING FPCS SPECTRAL CONTRAST MAPPING DECORRELATION STRETCH PHYSICAL-PROPERTY-ORIENTATED COORDINATE TRANSFORMATION AND TASSELLED CAP TRANSFORMATION STATISTIC METHODS FOR BAND SELECTION REVIEW OF CHAVEZ ET AL ’S AND SHEF?ELD’S METHODS REMARKS 8 IMAGE CLASSI?CATION APPROACHES OF STATISTICAL CLASSI?CATION UNSUPERVISED CLASSI?CATION SUPERVISED CLASSI?CATION CLASSI?CATION PROCESSING AND IMPLEMENTATION SUMMARY OF CLASSI?CATION APPROACHES UNSUPERVISED CLASSI?CATION (ITERATIVE CLUSTERING) ITERATIVE CLUSTERING ALGORITHMS FEATURE SPACE ITERATIVE CLUSTERING SEED SELECTION GENERIC ALGORITHM OF SUPERVISED CLASSI?CATION SPECTRAL ANGLE MAPPING CLASSI?CATION DECISION RULES: DISSIMILARITY FUNCTIONS BOX CLASSI?ER EUCLIDEAN DISTANCE: SIMPLI?ED MAXIMUM LIKELIHOOD MAXIMUM LIKELIHOOD *OPTIMAL MULTIPLE POINT REASSIGNMENT POST-CLASSI?CATION PROCESSING: SMOOTHING AND ACCURACY ASSESSMENT CLASS SMOOTHING PROCESS CLASSI?CATION ACCURACY ASSESSMENT IMAGE GEOMETRIC OPERATIONS IMAGE GEOMETRIC DEFORMATION PLATFORM ?IGHT COORDINATES, SENSOR STATUS AND IMAGING GEOMETRY EARTH ROTATION AND CURVATURE POLYNOMIAL DEFORMATION MODEL AND IMAGE WARPING CO-REGISTRATION DERIVATION OF DEFORMATION MODEL PIXEL DN RESAMPLING GCP SELECTION AND AUTOMATION MANUAL AND SEMI-AUTOMATIC GCP SELECTION *TOWARDS AUTOMATIC GCP SELECTION *OPTICAL ?OW IMAGE CO-REGISTRATION TO SUB-PIXEL ACCURACY BASICS OF PHASE CORRELATION BASIC SCHEME OF PIXEL-TO-PIXEL IMAGE CO-REGISTRATION THE MEDIAN SHIFT PROPAGATION TECHNIQUE SUMMARY OF THE RE?NED PIXEL-TO-PIXEL IMAGE CO-REGISTRATION AND ASSESSMENT 10 *INTRODUCTION TO INTERFEROMETRIC SYNTHETIC APERTURE RADAR TECHNIQUES 10 1 THE PRINCIPLE OF A RADAR INTERFEROMETER 10 2 RADAR INTERFEROGRAM AND DEM 10 3 DIFFERENTIAL INSAR AND DEFORMATION MEASUREMENT 10 4 MULTI-TEMPORAL COHERENCE IMAGE AND RANDOM CHANGE DETECTION 10 5 SPATIAL DECORRELATION AND RATIO COHERENCE TECHNIQUE 10 6 FRINGE SMOOTHING ?LTER 10 7 SUMMARY PART TWO GEOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION SYSTEMS 11 GEOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION SYSTEMS 11 1 INTRODUCTION 11 2 SOFTWARE TOOLS 11 3 GIS, CARTOGRAPHY AND THEMATIC MAPPING 11 4 STANDARDS, INTEROPERABILITY AND METADATA 11 5 GIS AND THE INTERNET 12 DATA MODELS AND STRUCTURES 12 1 INTRODUCING SPATIAL DATA IN REPRESENTING GEOGRAPHIC FEATURES 12 2 HOW ARE SPATIAL DATA DIFFERENT FROM OTHER DIGITAL DATA? 12 3 ATTRIBUTES AND MEASUREMENT SCALES 12 4 FUNDAMENTAL DATA STRUCTURES 12 5 RASTER DATA 12 5 1 DATA QUANTIZATION AND STORAGE 12 5 2 SPATIAL VARIABILITY 12 5 3 REPRESENTING SPATIAL RELATIONSHIPS 12 5 4 THE EFFECT OF RESOLUTION 12 5 5 REPRESENTING SURFACES 12 6 VECTOR DATA 12 6 1 REPRESENTING LOGICAL RELATIONSHIPS 12 6 2 EXTENDING THE VECTOR DATA MODEL 12 6 3 REPRESENTING SURFACES 12 7 CONVERSION BETWEEN DATA MODELS AND STRUCTURES 12 7 1 VECTOR TO RASTER CONVERSION (RASTERIZATION) 12 7 2 RASTER TO VECTOR CONVERSION (VECTORIZATION) 12 8 SUMMARY 13 DE?NING A COORDINATE SPACE 13 1 INTRODUCTION 13 2 DATUMS AND PROJECTIONS 13 2 1 DESCRIBING AND MEASURING THE EARTH 13 2 2 MEASURING HEIGHT: THE GEOID 13 2 3 COORDINATE SYSTEMS 13 2 4 DATUMS 13 2 5 GEOMETRIC DISTORTIONS AND PROJECTION MODELS 13 2 6 MAJOR MAP PROJECTIONS 13 2 7 PROJECTION SPECI?CATION 13 3 HOW COORDINATE INFORMATION IS STORED AND ACCESSED 13 4 SELECTING APPROPRIATE COORDINATE SYSTEMS 14 OPERATIONS 14 1 INTRODUCING OPERATIONS ON SPATIAL DATA 14 2 MAP ALGEBRA CONCEPTS 14 2 1 WORKING WITH NULL DATA 14 2 2 LOGICAL AND CONDITIONAL PROCESSING 14 2 3 OTHER TYPES OF OPERATOR 14 3 LOCAL OPERATIONS 14 3 1 PRIMARY OPERATIONS 14 3 2 UNARY OPERATIONS 14 3 3 BINARY OPERATIONS 14 3 4 N-ARY OPERATIONS 14 4 NEIGHBOURHOOD OPERATIONS 14 4 1 LOCAL NEIGHBOURHOOD 14 4 2 EXTENDED NEIGHBOURHOOD 14 5 VECTOR EQUIVALENTS TO RASTER MAP ALGEBRA 14 6 SUMMARY 15 EXTRACTING INFORMATION FROM POINT DATA: GEOSTATISTICS 15 1 INTRODUCTION 15 2 UNDERSTANDING THE DATA 15 2 1 HISTOGRAMS 15 2 2 SPATIAL AUTOCORRELATION 15 2 3 VARIOGRAMS 15 2 4 UNDERLYING TRENDS AND NATURAL BARRIERS 15 3 INTERPOLATION 15 3 1 SELECTING SAMPLE SIZE 15 3 2 INTERPOLATION METHODS 15 3 3 DETERMINISTIC INTERPOLATORS 15 3 4 STOCHASTIC INTERPOLATORS 15 4 SUMMARY 16 REPRESENTING AND EXPLOITING SURFACES 16 1 INTRODUCTION 16 2 SOURCES AND USES OF SURFACE DATA 16 2 1 DIGITAL ELEVATION MODELS 16 2 2 VECTOR SURFACES AND OBJECTS 16 2 3 USES OF SURFACE DATA 16 3 VISUALIZING SURFACES 16 3 1 VISUALIZING IN TWO DIMENSIONS 16 3 2 VISUALIZING IN THREE DIMENSIONS 16 4 EXTRACTING SURFACE PARAMETERS 16 4 1 SLOPE: GRADIENT AND ASPECT 16 4 2 CURVATURE 16 4 3 SURFACE TOPOLOGY: DRAINAGE NETWORKS AND WATERSHEDS 16 4 4 VIEWSHED 16 4 5 CALCULATING VOLUME 16 5 SUMMARY 17 DECISION SUPPORT AND UNCERTAINTY 17 1 INTRODUCTION 17 2 DECISION SUPPORT 17 3 UNCERTAINTY 17 3 1 CRITERION UNCERTAINTY 17 3 2 THRESHOLD UNCERTAINTY 17 3 3 DECISION RULE UNCERTAINTY 17 4 RISK AND HAZARD 17 5 DEALING WITH UNCERTAINTY IN SPATIAL ANALYSIS 17 5 1 ERROR ASSESSMENT (CRITERION UNCERTAINTY) 17 5 2 FUZZY MEMBERSHIP (THRESHOLD UNCERTAINTY) 17 5 3 MULTI-CRITERIA DECISION MAKING (DECISION RULE UNCERTAINTY) 17 5 4 ERROR PROPAGATION AND SENSITIVITY ANALYSIS (DECISION RULE UNCERTAINTY) 17 5 5 RESULT VALIDATION (DECISION RULE UNCERTAINTY) 17 6 SUMMARY 18 COMPLEX PROBLEMS AND MULTI-CRITERIA EVALUATION 18 1 INTRODUCTION 18 2 DIFFERENT APPROACHES AND MODELS 18 2 1 KNOWLEDGE-DRIVEN APPROACH (CONCEPTUAL) 18 2 2 DATA-DRIVEN APPROACH (EMPIRICAL) 18 2 3 DATA-DRIVEN APPROACH (NEURAL NETWORK) 18 3 EVALUATION CRITERIA 18 4 DERIVING WEIGHTING COEF?CIENTS 18 4 1 RATING 18 4 2 RANKING 18 4 3 PAIRWISE COMPARISON 18 5 MULTI-CRITERIA COMBINATION METHODS 18 5 1 BOOLEAN LOGICAL COMBINATION 18 5 2 INDEX-OVERLAY AND ALGEBRAIC COMBINATION 18 5 3 WEIGHTS OF EVIDENCE MODELLING BASED ON BAYESIAN PROBABILITY THEORY 18 5 4 BELIEF AND DEMPSTER–SHAFER THEORY 18 5 5 WEIGHTED FACTORS IN LINEAR COMBINATION 18 5 6 FUZZY LOGIC 18 5 7 VECTORIAL FUZZY MODELLING 18 6 SUMMARY PART THREE REMOTE SENSING APPLICATIONS IMAGE PROCESSING AND GIS OPERATION STRATEGY 19 1 GENERAL IMAGE PROCESSING STRATEGY 19 1 1 PREPARATION OF BASIC WORKING DATASET 19 1 2 IMAGE PROCESSING 19 1 3 IMAGE INTERPRETATION AND MAP COMPOSITION 19 2 REMOTE-SENSING-BASED GIS PROJECTS: FROM IMAGES TO THEMATIC MAPPING 19 3 AN EXAMPLE OF THEMATIC MAPPING BASED ON OPTIMAL VISUALIZATION AND INTERPRETATION OF MULTI-SPECTRAL SATELLITE IMAGERY 19 3 1 BACKGROUND INFORMATION 19 3 2 IMAGE ENHANCEMENT FOR VISUAL OBSERVATION 19 3 3 DATA CAPTURE AND IMAGE INTERPRETATION 19 3 4 MAP COMPOSITION 19 4 SUMMARY 20 THEMATIC TEACHING CASE STUDIES IN SE SPAIN 20 1 THEMATIC INFORMATION EXTRACTION (1): GYPSUM NATURAL OUTCROP MAPPING AND QUARRY CHANGE ASSESSMENT 20 1 1 DATA PREPARATION AND GENERAL VISUALIZATION 20 1 2 GYPSUM ENHANCEMENT AND EXTRACTION BASED ON SPECTRAL ANALYSIS 20 1 4 SUMMARY OF THE CASE STUDY 20 2 THEMATIC INFORMATION EXTRACTION (2): SPECTRAL ENHANCEMENT AND MINERAL MAPPING OF EPITHERMAL GOLD ALTERATION, AND IRON ORE DEPOSITS IN FERROAN DOLOMITE 20 2 1 IMAGE DATASETS AND DATA PREPARATION 20 2 2 ASTER IMAGE PROCESSING AND ANALYSIS FOR REGIONAL PROSPECTIVITY 20 2 3 ATM IMAGE PROCESSING AND ANALYSIS FOR TARGET EXTRACTION 20 2 4 SUMMARY 20 3 REMOTE SENSING AND GIS: EVALUATING VEGETATION AND LAND-USE CHANGE IN THE NIJAR BASIN, SE SPAIN 20 3 1 INTRODUCTION 20 3 2 DATA PREPARATION 20 3 3 HIGHLIGHTING VEGETATION 20 3 4 HIGHLIGHTING PLASTIC GREENHOUSES 20 3 5 IDENTIFYING CHANGE BETWEEN DIFFERENT DATES OF OBSERVATION 20 3 6 SUMMARY 20 4 APPLIED REMOTE SENSING AND GIS: A COMBINED INTERPRETIVE TOOL FOR REGIONAL TECTONICS, DRAINAGE AND WATER RESOURCES 20 4 1 INTRODUCTION 20 4 2 GEOLOGICAL AND HYDROLOGICAL SETTING 20 4 3 CASE STUDY OBJECTIVES 20 4 4 LAND USE AND VEGETATION 20 4 5 LITHOLOGICAL ENHANCEMENT AND DISCRIMINATION 20 4 6 STRUCTURAL ENHANCEMENT AND INTERPRETATION 20 4 7 SUMMARY REFERENCES RESEARCH CASE STUDIES 21 1 VEGETATION CHANGE IN THE THREE PARALLEL RIVERS REGION, YUNNAN PROVINCE, CHINA 21 1 1 INTRODUCTION 21 1 2 THE STUDY AREA AND DATA 21 1 3 METHODOLOGY 21 1 4 DATA PROCESSING 21 1 5 INTERPRETATION OF REGIONAL VEGETATION CHANGES 21 1 6 SUMMARY 21 2 LANDSLIDE HAZARD ASSESSMENT IN THE THREE GORGES AREA OF THE YANGTZE RIVER USING ASTER IMAGERY: WUSHAN–BADONG–ZOGUI 21 2 1 INTRODUCTION 21 2 2 THE STUDY AREA 21 2 3 METHODOLOGY: MULTI-VARIABLE ELIMINATION AND CHARACTERIZATION 21 2 4 TERRESTRIAL INFORMATION EXTRACTION 21 2 5 DEM AND TOPOGRAPHIC INFORMATION EXTRACTION 21 2 6 LANDSLIDE HAZARD MAPPING 21 2 7 SUMMARY 21 3 PREDICTING LANDSLIDES USING FUZZY GEOHAZARD MAPPING; AN EXAMPLE FROM PIEMONTE, NORTH-WEST ITALY 21 3 1 INTRODUCTION 21 3 2 THE STUDY AREA 21 3 3 A HOLISTIC GIS-BASED APPROACH TO LANDSLIDE HAZARD ASSESSMENT 21 3 4 SUMMARY 21 4 LAND SURFACE CHANGE DETECTION IN A DESERT AREA IN ALGERIA USING MULTI-TEMPORAL ERS SAR COHERENCE IMAGES 21 4 1 THE STUDY AREA 21 4 2 COHERENCE IMAGE PROCESSING AND EVALUATION 21 4 3 IMAGE VISUALIZATION AND INTERPRETATION FOR CHANGE DETECTION 21 4 4 SUMMARY 22 INDUSTRIAL CASE STUDIES 22 1 MULTI-CRITERIA ASSESSMENT OF MINERAL PROSPECTIVITY, IN SE GREENLAND 22 1 1 INTRODUCTION AND OBJECTIVES 22 1 2 AREA DESCRIPTION 22 1 3 LITHO-TECTONIC CONTEXT – WHY THE PROJECT’S CONCEPT WORKS 22 1 4 MINERAL DEPOSIT TYPES EVALUATED 22 1 5 DATA PREPARATION 22 1 6 MULTI-CRITERIA SPATIAL MODELLING 22 1 7 SUMMARY ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 22 2 WATER RESOURCE EXPLORATION IN SOMALIA 22 2 1 INTRODUCTION 22 2 2 DATA PREPARATION 22 2 3 PRELIMINARY GEOLOGICAL ENHANCEMENTS AND TARGET AREA IDENTI?CATION 22 2 4 DISCRIMINATION POTENTIAL AQUIFER LITHOLOGIES USING ASTER SPECTRAL INDICES 22 2 5 SUMMARY PART FOUR SUMMARY CONCLUDING REMARKS 23 1 IMAGE PROCESSING 23 2 GEOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION SYSTEMS 23 3 FINAL REMARKS