INTRODUCTION TO METEOROLOGY
1 INTRODUCTION 11 THE ATMOSPHERIC CONTINUUM 12 PHYSICAL DIMENSIONS AND UNITS 13 SCALE ANALYSIS 14 FUNDAMENTAL FORCES 141 PRESSURE GRADIENT FORCE 142 GRAVITATIONAL FORCE 143 VISCOUS FORCE 15 NONINERTIAL REFERENCE FRAMES AND “APPARENT” FORCES 151 CENTRIPETAL ACCELERATION AND CENTRIFUGAL FORCE 152 GRAVITY FORCE 153 THE CORIOLIS FORCE AND THE CURVATURE EFFECT 154 CONSTANT ANGULAR MOMENTUM OSCILLATIONS 16 STRUCTURE OF THE STATIC ATMOSPHERE 161 THE HYDROSTATIC EQUATION 162 PRESSURE AS A VERTICAL COORDINATE 163 A GENERALIZED VERTICAL COORDINATE PROBLEMS MATLAB EXERCISES SUGGESTED REFERENCES 2 BASIC CONSERVATION LAWS 21 TOTAL DIFFERENTIATION 211 TOTAL DIFFERENTIATION OF A VECTOR IN A ROTATING SYSTEM 22 THE VECTORIAL FORM OF THE MOMENTUM EQUATION IN ROTATING COORDINATES 23 COMPONENT EQUATIONS IN SPHERICAL COORDINATES 24 SCALE ANALYSIS OF THE EQUATIONS OF MOTION 241 GEOSTROPHIC APPROXIMATION AND GEOSTROPHICWIND 242 APPROXIMATE PROGNOSTIC EQUATIONS; THE ROSSBY NUMBER 243 THE HYDROSTATIC APPROXIMATION 25 THE CONTINUITY EQUATION 251 AN EULERIAN DERIVATION 252 A LAGRANGIAN DERIVATION 253 SCALE ANALYSIS OF THE CONTINUITY EQUATION 26 THE THERMODYNAMIC ENERGY EQUATION 27 THERMODYNAMICS OF THE DRY ATMOSPHERE 271 POTENTIAL TEMPERATURE 272 THE ADIABATIC LAPSE RATE 273 STATIC STABILITY 274 SCALE ANALYSIS OF THE THERMODYNAMIC ENERGY EQUATION 3 ELEMENTARY APPLICATIONS OF THE BASIC EQUATIONS 31 BASIC EQUATIONS IN ISOBARIC COORDINATES 311 THE HORIZONTAL MOMENTUM EQUATION 312 THE CONTINUITY EQUATION 313 THE THERMODYNAMIC ENERGY EQUATION 32 BALANCED FLOW 321 NATURAL COORDINATES 322 GEOSTROPHIC FLOW 323 INERTIAL FLOW 324 CYCLOSTROPHIC FLOW 325 THE GRADIENTWIND APPROXIMATION 33 TRAJECTORIES AND STREAMLINES 34 THE THERMAL WIND 341 BAROTROPIC AND BAROCLINIC ATMOSPHERES 35 VERTICAL MOTION 351 THE KINEMATIC METHOD 352 THE ADIABATIC METHOD 36 SURFACE PRESSURE TENDENCY 4 CIRCULATION AND VORTICITY 41 THE CIRCULATION THEOREM 42 VORTICITY 421 VORTICITY IN NATURAL COORDINATES 43 POTENTIAL VORTICITY 44 THE VORTICITY EQUATION 441 CARTESIAN COORDINATE FORM 442 THE VORTICITY EQUATION IN ISOBARIC COORDINATES 443 SCALE ANALYSIS OF THE VORTICITY EQUATION 45 VORTICITY IN BAROTROPIC FLUIDS 451 THE BAROTROPIC (ROSSBY) POTENTIAL VORTICITY EQUATION 452 THE BAROTROPIC VORTICITY EQUATION 46 THEBAROCLINIC (ERTEL) POTENTIALVORTICITYEQUATION 461 EQUATIONS OF MOTION IN ISENTROPIC COORDINATES 462 THE POTENTIAL VORTICITY EQUATION 463 INTEGRAL CONSTRAINTS ON ISENTROPIC VORTICITY 5 THE PLANETARY BOUNDARY LAYER 51 ATMOSPHERIC TURBULENCE 511 THE BOUSSINESQ APPROXIMATION 512 REYNOLDS AVERAGING 52 TURBULENT KINETIC ENERGY 53 PLANETARY BOUNDARY LAYER MOMENTUM EQUATIONS 531 WELL-MIXED BOUNDARY LAYER 532 THE FLUX–GRADIENT THEORY 533 THE MIXING LENGTH HYPOTHESIS 534 THE EKMAN LAYER 535 THE SURFACE LAYER 536 THE MODIFIED EKMAN LAYER 54 SECONDARY CIRCULATIONS AND SPIN DOWN 6 SYNOPTIC-SCALE MOTIONS I: QUASI- GEOSTROPHIC ANALYSIS 61 THE OBSERVED STRUCTURE OF EXTRATROPICAL CIRCULATIONS 62 THE QUASI-GEOSTROPHIC APPROXIMATION 621 SCALE ANALYSIS IN ISOBARIC COORDINATES 622 THE QUASI-GEOSTROPHIC VORTICITY EQUATION 63 QUASI-GEOSTROPHIC PREDICTION 631 GEOPOTENTIAL TENDENCY 632 THE QUASI-GEOSTROPHIC POTENTIAL VORTICITY EQUATION 633 POTENTIAL VORTICITY INVERSION 634 VERTICAL COUPLING THROUGH POTENTIAL VORTICITY 64 DIAGNOSIS OF THE VERTICAL MOTION 641 THE TRADITIONAL OMEGA EQUATION 642 THE Q VECTOR 643 THE AGEOSTROPHIC CIRCULATION 65 IDEALIZED MODEL OF A BAROCLINIC DISTURBANCE SUGGESTED REFERENCES 6 7 ATMOSPHERIC OSCILLATIONS: LINEAR PERTURBATION THEORY 71 THE PERTURBATION METHOD 72 PROPERTIES OFWAVES 721 FOURIER SERIES 722 DISPERSION AND GROUP VELOCITY 73 SIMPLEWAVE TYPES 731 ACOUSTIC OR SOUNDWAVES 732 SHALLOWWATER GRAVITYWAVES 74 INTERNAL GRAVITY (BUOYANCY) WAVES 741 PURE INTERNAL GRAVITYWAVES 742 TOPOGRAPHICWAVES 75 GRAVITYWAVES MODIFIED BY ROTATION 751 PURE INERTIAL OSCILLATIONS 752 INERTIA–GRAVITYWAVES 76 ADJUSTMENT TO GEOSTROPHIC BALANCE 77 ROSSBYWAVES 771 FREE BAROTROPIC ROSSBYWAVES 772 FORCED TOPOGRAPHIC ROSSBYWAVES 8 SYNOPTIC-SCALE MOTIONS II: BAROCLINIC INSTABILITY 81 HYDRODYNAMIC INSTABILITY 82 NORMAL MODE BAROCLINIC INSTABILITY: A TWO-LAYER MODEL 821 LINEAR PERTURBATION ANALYSIS 822 VERTICAL MOTION IN BAROCLINICWAVES 83 THE ENERGETICS OF BAROCLINICWAVES 831 AVAILABLE POTENTIAL ENERGY 832 ENERGY EQUATIONS FOR THE TWO-LAYER MODEL 84 BAROCLINIC INSTABILITY OFA CONTINUOUSLY STRATIFIED ATMOSPHERE 841 LOG-PRESSURE COORDINATES 842 BAROCLINIC INSTABILITY: THE RAYLEIGH THEOREM 843 THE EADY STABILITY PROBLEM 85 GROWTHAND PROPAGATION OF NEUTRAL MODES 851 TRANSIENT GROWTH OF NEUTRALWAVES 852 DOWNSTREAM DEVELOPMENT 9 MESOSCALE CIRCULATIONS 91 ENERGY SOURCES FOR MESOSCALE CIRCULATIONS 92 FRONTS AND FRONTOGENESIS 921 THE KINEMATICS OF FRONTOGENESIS 922 SEMIGEOSTROPHIC THEORY 923 CROSS-FRONTAL CIRCULATION 93 SYMMETRIC BAROCLINIC INSTABILITY 94 MOUNTAINWAVES 941 FLOW OVER ISOLATED RIDGES 942 LEEWAVES 943 DOWNSLOPEWINDSTORMS 95 CUMULUS CONVECTION 951 EQUIVALENT POTENTIAL TEMPERATURE 952 THE PSEUDOADIABATIC LAPSE RATE 953 CONDITIONAL INSTABILITY 954 CONVECTIVE AVAILABLE POTENTIAL ENERGY (CAPE) 955 ENTRAINMENT 96 CONVECTIVE STORMS 961 DEVELOPMENT OF ROTATION IN SUPERCELL THUNDERSTORMS 962 THE RIGHT-MOVING STORM 97 HURRICANES 971 DYNAMICS OF MATURE HURRICANES 972 HURRICANE DEVELOPMENT 10 THE GENERAL CIRCULATION 101 THE NATURE OF THE PROBLEM 102 THE ZONALLY AVERAGED CIRCULATION 1021 THE CONVENTIONAL EULERIAN MEAN 1022 THE TRANSFORMED EULERIAN MEAN (TEM) 1023 THE ZONAL-MEAN POTENTIAL VORTICITY EQUATION 103 THE ANGULAR MOMENTUM BUDGET 1031 SIGMA COORDINATES 1032 THE ZONAL-MEAN ANGULAR MOMENTUM 104 THE LORENZ ENERGY CYCLE 105 LONGITUDINALLY DEPENDENT TIME-AVERAGED FLOW 1051 STATIONARY ROSSBYWAVES 1052 JETSTREAM AND STORM TRACKS 106 LOW-FREQUENCY VARIABILITY 1061 CLIMATE REGIMES 1062 ANNULAR MODES 1063 SEA SURFACE TEMPERATURE ANOMALIES 107 LABORATORYSIMULATIONOFTHEGENERALCIRCULATION 108 NUMERICAL SIMULATION OF THE GENERAL CIRCULATION 1081 THE DEVELOPMENT OF AGCMS 1082 DYNAMICAL FORMULATION 1083 PHYSICAL PROCESSES AND PARAMETERIZATIONS 1084 THE NCAR CLIMATE SYSTEM MODEL 11 TROPICAL DYNAMICS 111 THE OBSERVED STRUCTURE OF LARGE-SCALE TROPICAL CIRCULATIONS 1111 THE INTERTROPICAL CONVERGENCE ZONE 1112 EQUATORIALWAVE DISTURBANCES 1113 AFRICANWAVE DISTURBANCES 1114 TROPICAL MONSOONS 1115 THEWALKER CIRCULATION 1116 EL NI ˜ NO AND THE SOUTHERN OSCILLATION 1117 EQUATORIAL INTRASEASONAL OSCILLATION 112 SCALE ANALYSIS OF LARGE-SCALE TROPICAL MOTIONS 113 CONDENSATION HEATING 114 EQUATORIALWAVE THEORY 1141 EQUATORIAL ROSSBY AND ROSSBY–GRAVITY MODES 1142 EQUATORIAL KELVINWAVES 115 STEADY FORCED EQUATORIAL MOTIONS 12 MIDDLE ATMOSPHERE DYNAMICS 121 STRUCTURE AND CIRCULATION OF THE MIDDLE ATMOSPHERE 122 THE ZONAL-MEAN CIRCULATION OF THE MIDDLE ATMOSPHERE 1221 LAGRANGIAN MOTION OF AIR PARCELS 1222 THE TRANSFORMED EULERIAN MEAN 1223 ZONAL-MEAN TRANSPORT 123 VERTICALLY PROPAGATING PLANETARYWAVES 1231 LINEAR ROSSBYWAVES 1232 ROSSBYWAVEBREAKING 124 SUDDEN STRATOSPHERICWARMINGS 125 WAVES IN THE EQUATORIAL STRATOSPHERE 1251 VERTICALLY PROPAGATING KELVINWAVES 1252 VERTICALLY PROPAGATING ROSSBY–GRAVITYWAVES 1253 OBSERVED EQUATORIALWAVES 126 THE QUASI-BIENNIAL OSCILLATION 127 TRACE CONSTITUENT TRANSPORT 1271 DYNAMICAL TRACERS 1272 CHEMICAL TRACERS 1273 TRANSPORT IN THE STRATOSPHERE SUGGESTED REFERENCES 12 13 NUMERICAL MODELING AND PREDICTION 131 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND 132 FILTERING METEOROLOGICAL NOISE 133 NUMERICAL APPROXIMATION OF THE EQUATIONS OF MOTION 1331 FINITE DIFFERENCES 1332 CENTERED DIFFERENCES: EXPLICIT TIME DIFFERENCING 1333 COMPUTATIONAL STABILITY 1334 IMPLICIT TIME DIFFERENCING 1335 THE SEMI-LAGRANGIAN INTEGRATION METHOD 1336 TRUNCATION ERROR 134 THE BAROTROPIC VORTICITY EQUATION IN FINITE DIFFERENCES 135 THE SPECTRAL METHOD 1351 THE BAROTROPIC VORTICITY EQUATION IN SPHERICAL COORDINATES 1352 ROSSBY–HAURWITZWAVES 1353 THE SPECTRAL TRANSFORM METHOD 136 PRIMITIVE EQUATION MODELS 1361 THE ECMWF GRID POINT MODEL 1362 SPECTRAL MODELS 1363 PHYSICAL PARAMETERIZATIONS 137 DATA ASSIMILATION 1371 THE INITIALIZATION PROBLEM 1372 NONLINEAR NORMAL MODE INITIALIZATION 1373 FOUR-DIMENSIONAL DATA ASSIMILATION 138 PREDICTABILITY AND ENSEMBLE PREDICTION SYSTEMS